(Dood 
Finishing 


STAINING 

¥ARN1SHING 

POLISHING 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES. 

A  Series  of  Practical   Manuals. 

Edited    by    PAUL    N.    HASLUCK,    Editor    of    "Work." 
Price  BOcts.  each,   post  paid. 

House     Decoration.       Comprising    WHITEWASHING,     PAPERHANGING, 
PAINTING,  etc.     With  79  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— Colour  and  Paints.  Pigments,  Oils,  Driers,  Varnishes,  etc.  Tools 
used  by  Painters.  How  to  Mix  Oil  Paints.  Distemper  or  Tempera  Painting. 
Whitewashing  and  Decorating  a  Ceiling.  Painting  a  Room.  Papering  a  Room. 
Embellishment  of  Walls  and  Ceilings. 

Boot  Making:  and  Mending:.     Including  REPAIRING,   LASTING,  and 
FINISHING.     With  179  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.—  Repairing  Heels  and  Half-Soling.     Patching  Boots  and  Shoes. 
Re-Welting  and  Re-Soling.     Boot  Making.     Lasting  the  Upper.      Sewing  and 
Stitching.     Making  the  Heel.     Knifing  and  Finishing.     Making  Riveted  Boots 
and  Shoes. 
How  to  Write  Signs,  Tickets,  and  Posters.    With  170  Engravings 

Contents.— The  Formation  of  Letters,  Stops,  and  Numerals.  The  Sign- 
writer's  Outfit.  Making  Signbaards  and  Laying  Ground  Colours.  The  Simpler 
Forms  of  Lettering.  Shaded  and  Fancy  Lettering.  Painting  a  Signboard. 
Ticket- Writing.  Poster-  Painting.  Lettering  with  Gold,  etc. 
Wood  Finishing:.  Comprising  STAINING,  VARNISHING,  and  POLISHING. 
With  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— Processes   of  Finishing    Wood.      Processes  of  Staining   Wood. 


French  Polishing.     Fillers  for  Wood  and  Filling  In.      Bodying  In  and  Spiriting 
Oflf.  Glazing  and  Wax  Finishing.  Oil  Polishing  and  Dry  Shining.    Re-polishing 
and  Reviving.     Hard  Stopping  or  Beaumontage.     Treatment  of  Floors  Stains. 
Processes  of  Varnishing  Wood  Varnishes.     Re-polishing  Shop  Fronts. 
Dynamos  and  Electric  Motors.   With  142  Engravings  and  Diagrams 

Contents.  —  Introduction.  Siemens  Dynamo.  Gramme  Dynamo.  Manchester 
Dynamo.  Simplex  Dynamo.  Calculating  the  Size  and  Amount  of  Wire  for 
Small  Dynamos.  Ailments  of  Small  Dynamo  Electric  Machines  :  their  Causes 
and  Cures.  Small  Electro-motors  without  Castings.  How  to  Determine  the 
Direction  of  Rotation  of  a  Motor.  How  to  Make  a  Shuttle-Armature  Motor. 
Undertype  50-  Watt  Dynamo.  Manchester  Type  440-  Watt  Dynamo. 
Cycle  Building:  and  Repairing:.  With  142  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.  —  Introductory-,  and  Tools  Used.  How  to  Build  a  Front  Driver. 
Building  a  Rear-driving  Safetv.  Building  Tandem  Safeties.  Building  Front- 
driver  Tricycle.  Building  a  Hand  Tricycle.  Brazing.  How  to  Make  and  Fit 
Gear  Cases.  Fittings  and  Accessories.  Wheel  Making.  Tyres  and  Methods 
of  Fixing  them.  Enamelling.  Repairing. 

Decorative  Designs  of  All  Ages  -for  All  Purposes.    With  277 
Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.  —  Savage  Ornament.  Egyptian  Ornament.  Assyrian  Ornament. 
Greek  Ornament.  Roman  Ornament.  Early  Christian  Ornament.  Arabic 
Ornament.  Celtic  and  Scandinavian  Ornaments.  Mediaeval  Ornament. 
Renascence  and  Modern  Ornaments.  Chinese  Ornament.  Persian  Ornament. 
Indian  Ornament.  Japanese  Ornament. 
Mounting:  and  Framing:  Pictures.  With  240  Eneravings,  etc. 

Contents.  —  Making  Picture  Frames.  Notes  on  An  Frames.  Picture  Frame 
Cramps.  Making  Oxford  Frames.  Gilding  Picture  Frames.  Methods  of 


Mounting  Pictures.     Making  Photograph  Frames.     Frames  covered  with  Plush 

and  Cork.     Hanging  and  Packing  Pictures. 

Smiths'  Work.    With  211  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.—  Forges  and  Appliances.  Hand  Tools.  Drawing  Down  and  Up- 
setting. Welding  and  Punching.  Conditions  of  Work  :  Principles  of  Forma- 
tion. Bendinsj  and  Ring  Making.  Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Forged  Work. 
Cranks,  Model  Work,  and  Die  Forging.  Home-made  Forges.  The  Manipula- 
tion of  Steel  at  the  Forge.  (Continued  on  next  page.) 

DAVID   McKAY,  Publisher,  610  South  Washington  Square,   Philadelphia. 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES   (continued}. 

Glass  Working  by   Heat    and    Abrasion.     With  300  Engravings 

and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— Appliances  used  in  Glass  Blowing.  Manipulating  Glass  Tubing 
Blowing  Bulbs  and  Flasks.  Jointing  Tubes  to  Bulbs  forming  Thistle  Funnels 
etc.  Blowing  and  Etching  Glass  Fancy  Articles  ;  Embossing  and  Gilding  Flat 
Surfaces.  Utilising  Broken  Glass  Apparatus  ;  Boring  Holes  in,  and  Riveting 
Glass.  Hand-working  of  Telescope  Specula.  Turning,  Chipping,  and  Grinding 
G<ass.  The  Manufacture  of  Glass. 
Building  Model  Boats.  With  168  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— Building   Model    Yachts.      Rigging  and  Sailing  Model  Yachts 
Making  and  Fitting  Simple   Model  Boats.     Building  a  Model  Atlantic  Liner. 
Vertical  Engine  for  a  Model   Launch.     Model  Launch  Engine  with  Reversing 
Gear.     Making  a  Show  Case  for  a  Model  Boat. 
Electric   Bells,   How  to  Make  and   Fit  Them.    With  162  En. 

gravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.—  The  Electr  c  Current  and  the  Laws  that  Govern  it.  Current 
Conductors  used  in  Electric- Bell  Work.  Wiring  for  Electric  Bells.  Elaborated 
Systems  of  Wiring  ;  Burglar  Alarms.  Batteries  for  Electric  Bells.  The  Con- 
struction of  Electric  Bells,  Pushes,  and  Switches.  Indicators  for  Electric-Bell 
Systems. 
Bamboo  Work.  With  177  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Bamboo  :  Its  Sources  and  Uses.  How  to  Work  Bamboo.  Bamboo 
Tables.  Bamboo  Chairs  and  Seats.  Bamboo  Bedroom  Furniture.  Bamboo 
Hall  Racks  and  Stands.  Bamboo  Music  Racks.  Bamboo  Cabinets  and  Book- 
cases. Bamboo  Window  Blinds.  Miscellaneous  Articles  of  Bamboo.  Bamboo 
Mail  Cart. 
Taxidermy.  With  108  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— Skinning  Birds.  Stuffing  and  Mounting  Birds.  Skinning  and 
Stuffing  Mammals.  Mounting  Animals'  Horned  Heads  :  Polishing  and  Mount- 
ing Horns.  Skinning,  Stuffing,  and  Casting  Fish.  Pieserving,  Cleaning,  and 
Dyeing  Skins.  Preserving  Insects,  and  Birds'  Eggs.  Cases  for  Mounting 
Specimens. 
Tailoring.  With  180  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.—  Tailors'  Requisites  and  Methods  of  Stitching.     Simple  Repairs 
and    Pressing.      Relining,   Repocketing,   and  Recollaring.      How  to  Cut  and 
Make  Trousers.     How  to  Cut  and  Make  Vests.      Cutting  and  Making  Lounge 
and  Reefer  Jackets.     Cutting  and  Making  Morning  and  Frock  Coats. 
Photographic  Cameras  and  Accessories.    Comprising  How  TO 
MAKE  CAMERAS,   DARK   SLIDES,   SHUTTERS,   and  STANDS.     With  160 
Illustrations. 

Contents. — Photographic  Lenses  and  How  to  Test  them.    Modern  Half-plate 
Cameras.       Hand   and   Pocket    Cameras.      Ferrotype   Cameras.      Stereoscopic 
Cameras.     Enlarging  Cameras.     Dark  Slides.     Cinematograph  Management. 
Optical  Lanterns.     Comprising  THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 
OF   OPTICAL   LANTERNS    AND    THE    MAKING   OK   SLIDES.      With    160 
Illustrations. 

Contents. — Single  Lanterns.  Dissolving  View  lanterns.  Illuminant  for 
Optical  Lanterns.  Optical  Lantern  Accessories.  Conducting  a  Limelight 
Lantern  Exhibition.  Experiments  with  Optical  Lanterns.  Painting  Lantern 
Slides.  Photographic  Lantern  Slides.  Mechanical  Lantern  Slides.  Cinemato- 
graph Management. 
Engraving  Metals.  With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

Contents.  —  Introduction  and  Terms  used.  Engravers'  Tools  and  their  Uses. 
Elementary  Exercises  in  Engraving.  Engraving  Plate  and  Precious  Metals. 
Engraving  Monograms.  Transfer  Processes  of  Engraving  Metals.  Engraving 
Name  Plates.  F.ngraving  Coffin  Plates.  Engraving  Steel  Plates.  Chasing 
and  Embossing  Metals.  Etching  Metals. 
Basket  Work.  Wjth  189  Illustrations. 

Contents.—  Tools  and  Materials.  Simple  Baskets.  Grocer's  Square  Baskets. 
Round  Baskets.  Oval  Baskets.  Flat  Fruit  Baskets.  Wicker  Elbow  Chairs. 
Basket  Bottle-casings.  Doctors'  and  Chemists'  Baskets.  Fancy  Basket  Work. 
Sussex  Trug  Basket.  Miscellaneous  Basket  Work.  Index 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,   610  South   Washington  Square,   Philadelphia. 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES  (continued}. 

Bookbinding.     With  125  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— Bookbinders'  Appliances.  Folding  Printed  Book  Sheets.  Beat- 
ing and  Sewing.  Rounding,  Backing,  and  Cover  Cutting.  Cutting  Book  Edges. 
Covering  Books.  Cloth-bound  Books,  Pamphlets,  etc.  Account  Books, 
Ledgers,  etc.  Coloring,  Sprinkling,  and  Marbling  Book  Edges.  Marbling 
Book  Papers.  Gilding  Book  Edges.  Sprinkling  and  Tree  Marbling  Book 
Covers.  Lettering,  Gilding,  and  Finishing  Book  Covers.  Index. 


Bent  Iron  Work.     Including  ELEMENTARY  ART  METAL  We 

269  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 
Contents. — Tools  and  Materials.  Bending  and  Working  Strip  Iron.  Simple 
Exercises  in  Bent  Iron.  Floral  Ornaments  for  Bent  Iron  Work.  Candlesticks. 
Hall  Lanterns.  Screens,  Grilles,  etc.  Table  Lamps.  Suspended  Lamps  and 
Flower  Bowls.  Photoj 
Miscellaneous  Examples 


.  ,  ,        .  . 

Flower   Bowls.      Photograph   Frames.       Newspaper   Rack.       Floor   Lamps, 
es.     Index. 


Photography.     With  70  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — The  Camera  and  its  Accessories.  The  Studio  and  Darkroom. 
Plates.  Exposure.  Developing  and  Fixing  Negatives.  Intensification  and 
Reduction  of  Negatives.  Portraiture  and  Picture  Composition.  Flashlight 
Photography.  Retouching  Negatives  Processes  of  Printing  from  Negatives. 
Mounting  and  Finishing  Prints.  Copying  and  Enlarging.  Stereoscopic 
Photography.  Ferrotype  Photography.  Index. 
Upholstery.  With  162  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— Upholsterers'  Materials.  Upholsterers'  Tools  and  Appliances. 
Webbing,  Springing,  Stuffing,  and  Tufting.  Making  Seat  Cushions  and  Squabs. 
Upholstering  an  Easy  Chair.  Upholstering  Couches  and  Sofas.  Upholstering 


Footstools,  Fenderettes,  etc.  Miscellaneous  Upholstery.  Mattress  Making 
and  Repairing.  Fancy  Upholstery.  Renovating  and  Repairing  Upholstered 
Furniture.  Planning  and  Laying  Carpets  and  Linoleum.  Index. 


Leather   Working.     With  152  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.—  Qualities  and  Varieties  of  Leather.  Strap  Cutting  and  Making. 
Letter  Cases  and  Writing  Pads.  Hair  Brush  and  Collar  Cases.  Hat  Cases. 
Banjo  and  Mandoline  Cases.  Bags.  Portmanteaux  and  Travelling  Trunks. 
Knapsacks  and  Satchels.  Leather  Ornamentation.  Footballs.  Dyeing 
Leather.  Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Leather  Work.  Index. 
Harness  Making.  With  197  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.—  Harness  Makers'  Tools.     Harness  Makers'  Materials.     Simple 
Exercises  in  Stitching.    Looping.    Cart  Harness.    Cart  Collars.    Cart  Saddles. 
Fore  Gear  and  Leader  Harness.     Plough  Harness.     Bits,  Spurs,  Stirrups,  and 
Harness  Furniture.     Van  and  Cab  Harness.     Index. 
Saddlery.     With  99  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.  —  Gentleman's  Riding  Saddle.  Panel  for  Gentleman's  Saddle. 
Ladies'  Side  Saddles.  Children's  Saddles  or  Pilches.  Saddle  Cruppers,  Breast- 
plates, and  other  Accessories.  Riding  Bridles.  Breaking-down  Tackle  Head 
Collars.  Horse  Clothing.  Knee-caps  and  Miscellaneous  Articles.  Repairing 
Harness  and  Saddlery.  Re-lining  Collars  and  Saddles.  Riding  and  Driving 
Whips.  Superior  Set  of  Gig  Harness.  Index. 

Knotting  and  Splicing,   Ropes  and  Cordage.    With  208 

Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.—  Introduction.  Rope  Formation.  Simple  and  Useful  Knots. 
Eye  Knots,  Hitches  and  Bends.  Ring  Knots  and  Rope  Shortenings.  Ties 
and  Lashings.  Fancy  Knots.  Rope  Splicing.  Working  Cordage.  Ham- 
mock Making.  Lashings  and  Ties  for  bcaffokling.  Splicing  and  Socketing 
Wire  Ropes.  Index. 

Beehives  and  Beekeepers'  Appliances.    With  iS5  Engravings 

and  Diagrams. 

Contents.—  Introduction.  A  Bar-Frame  Beehive.  Temporary  Beehive 
Tiering  Bar-Frame  Beehive.  The  "  W.  B.  C."  Beehive.  Furnishing  and 
Stocking  a  Beehive.  Observatory  Beehive  for  Permanent  Use.  Observatory 
Beehive  for  Temporary  Use.  Inspection  Case  for  Beehives.  Hive  for  Rear- 
ing Queen  Bees.  Super-Clearers.  Bee  Smoker.  Honey  Extractors.  Wax 
Extractors.  Beekeepers'  Miscellaneous  Appliances.  Index. 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  610  South    Washington   Square,  Philadelphia. 


WORK"  HANDBOOKS. 


WOOD   FINISHING 


WOOD    FINISHING 


COMPRISING 


STAINING,     VARNISHING,    AXD    POLISHING 


WITH    ENGRAVINGS    AND     DIAGRAMS 


EDITED    BY 

PAUL     N.     HASLUCK 
/ 

KDITOR   OK    "WORK"    AND    "BUILDING    WORLD" 


PHILADELPHIA 

DAVID     McKAY,     PUBLISHER 

610,    SOUTH    WASHINGTON  SQUARE 
1900 


PREFACE. 

THIS  Handbook  contains,  in  a  form  convenient  for 
everyday  use,  a  comprehensive  digest  of  the  knowledge 
of  Staining,  Varnishing,  and  Polishing  Woods, 
scattered  over  ten  thousand  columns  of  WORK— one 
of  the  weekly  journals  it  is  my  fortune  to  edit — and 
supplies  concise  information  on  the  general  principles 
of  the  crafts  on  which  it  treats. 

In  preparing  for  publication  in  book  form  the  mass 
of  relevant  matter  contained  in  the  volumes  of  WORK, 
much  that  was  tautological  in  character  had  to  be 
rejected.  The  remainder  necessarily  had  to  be  arranged 
anew,  altered  and  largely  re-written.  From  these 
causes  the  contributions  of  many  are  so  blended  that 
the  writings  of  individuals  cannot  be  distinguished  for 
acknowledgment. 

Headers  who  may  desire  additional  information  re- 
specting special  details  of  the  matters  dealt  with  in  this 
Handbook,  or  instruction  on  kindred  subjects,  should 
address  a  question  to  WORK,  so  that  it  may  be 
answered  in  the  columns  of  that  journal. 

P.  N.  HASLUCK. 

Li  Belle  Sauvagc,  London 


CONTENTS. 

CHAP  FAOK 

I— Processes  of  Finishing  Wood     .  .9 

II.— Processes  of  Staining  Wood       .        .  .15 

III.— French  Polishing 20 

IV.— Fillers  for  Wood  and  Filling  In  .        .28 

Y.— Bodying  In  and  Spiriting  Off   .        .        .        .35 

VI.— Glazing  and  Wax  Finishing      .         ...      45 

VII.— Oil  Polishing  and  Dry  Shining         .        .        .53 

VIII.— Repolishing  and  Reviving 58 

IX. — Hard  Stopping  or  Beaumontage        ...      66 

X.— Treatment  of  Floors 71 

XL— Stains 81 

XII.— Processes  of  Varnishing  Wood  ....      94 

XIII.— Varnishes 105 

XIV.— Repolishing  Shop-fronta 118 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

no.  PAOB 

1.— Side  View  of  Rubber  used  for  French  Polishing  23 

2.— Face  of  Roll  used  for  French  Polishing      .        .  23 
3.— Rubber  used  in  Corner  of  Framed  Panel     .        .23 

4. — Usual  form  of  Rubber  for  French  Polishing       .  24 

5. — Form  of  Rubber  for  Getting  into  Corners   .        .  24 

6.— Method  of  Holding  the  Rubber  when  in  Use      .  24 

7.— The  Path  of  the  Rubber  in  French  Polishing     .  38 

8.— Bull-nose  Plane  in  Section 73 

9.— Suggestions  for  Border  Ornaments  for  Floors      .  78 

10.— Stencil  Brush 79 

11.— Gilder's  Mop 96 

12.— Household  Varnish  Jar  .        .        .        .        .        .97 


WOOD  FINISHING. 

CHAPTER  I. 

PROCESSES  OP  FINISHING  WOOD. 

BY  French  polishing  and  spirit  varnishing,  or  both  in 
combination,  household  furniture  and  many  other 
things  are  covered  with  a  lac  solution,  with  the  object 
of  giving  them  a  polished  mirror-like  surface,  showing 
the  beauty  and  figure  of  woods  to  the  best  advantage. 
By  painting,  the  latter  qualities  are  hidden,  and  to  an 
extent  the  cabinet-maker's  skill  has  been  so  much  labour 
in  vain.  The  surface,  as  it  comes  from  the  cabinet- 
maker's hands,  shows  an  unfinished  article,  to  which 
dust  and  finger-marks  would  soon  give  a  dirty  appearance. 

Staining  is  the  process  of  imparting  to  the  surface  of 
wood  a  colour  different  from  its  natural  one.  Staining 
requires  no  preliminary  preparation,  the  stain  being 
applied  directly  to  the  wood.  Most  stains  raise  the 
grain  of  the  wood  to  a  considerable  extent,  so  before 
applying  varnish,  it  is  necessary  to  sand-paper  the  wood 
enough  to  render  the  grain  smooth  again  ;  this  sometimes 
involves  the  use  of  a  second  coat  of  stain,  after  which 
the  sand-paper  must  be  again  applied.  To  simply  stain 
a  piece  of  wood  in  a  uniform  tint,  and  to  produce  a 
gloss  by  coats  of  varnish,  is  not  all  that  is  required  in 
these  modern  days  of  keen  competition  ;  and  this  is 
particularly  true  in  the  case  of  furniture  of  the  medium 
and  higher  grades. 

The  method  of  finishing  most  suitable  for  woodwork 
depends  on  circumstances.  For  coarse  work  varnish 
does  very  well,  but  for  articles  of  furniture  French 


10  WOOD  FINISHING. 

polishing  is  to  be  preferred,  as  finer  results  can  be 
obtained  by  it.    In  addition  to  these  methods,  we  have 

011  and  wax  polishing  processes,  which  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred for  some  kinds  of  work,  and  which  are  treated 
on  in  a  later  chapter. 

Choice  articles  of  furniture,  from  the  substantial 
sideboard  to  the  flimsy  fretwork  ornament,  may  be 
varnished  instead  of  polished  ;  but  such  a  well-finished 
surface  cannot  be  got  with  the  simpler  and  easier  process, 
which  is  also  more  expeditious.  To  distinguish  that 
which  will  be  worth  polishing  properly,  and  that  for 
which  a  coat  of  varnish  is  sufficient,  must  be  left  to  the 
reader's  consideration,  but  he  will  get  better  results 
from  careful  varnishing  than  from  badly  executed 
polishing ;  though  the  simple  wax  polishing  described 
on  p.  50  can  be  done  by  anybody  who  has  patience. 

Furniture  made  from  pine  may  be  considered  the 
only  kind  which  it  is  proper  to  varnish,  though  even 
this  is  sometimes  French  polished.  However,  unless 
particularly  well  made  and  finished,  it  is  not  customary 
to  polish  it.  Its  appearance  is  improved  by  polishing, 
like  that  of  other  woods ;  but  as  the  chief  advantage  in 
pine  furniture  is  its  cheapness,  varnishing  is  supposed  to 
be  good  enough  for  it.  The  process  of  japanning,  by 
which  much  of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  pine  furniture  is 
finished,  is  similar  to  painting.  This  handbook  will  be 
confined  to  processes  in  which  the  grain  or  natural  figure 
of  the  wood  is  simply  brought  out  and  improved  by  a 
transparent  covering.  Mahogany,  walnut,  and  all  the 
finer  woods  used  in  making  furniture  should  be  polished, 
in  order  to  make  them  look  their  best.  The  novice  must 
form  his  own  opinion  as  to  when  he  ought  to  finish  by 
polishing  and  when  by  varnishing. 

A  glossy  surface  on  wood  is  often  described  in- 
differently as  varnish  or  polish,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
rightly  so.  An  expert  has  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing 
the  mode  of  finishing  which  has  been  adopted  for  a 
piece  of  woodwork,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  explain  the  dis- 
tinction. He  would  not  confound  the  two  terms,  polish 


PROCESSES  OF  FINISHING   WOOD,  n 

and  varnish ;  but  if  asked  to  point  out  the  difference 
he  would  probably  say  in  effect  that  varnish  is  laid 
T>n  with  a  brush,  while  French  polish  is  applied  by 
means  of  a  rubber,  an  explanation  which  will  bear 
supplementing.  In  order  to  arrive  at  a  clearer  idea  of 
the  difference  between  the  two  processes,  it  will  be  well 
to  understand  the  action  .of  a  varnish. 

Varnish  is  applied  in  a  liquid  state,  and  this  liquid  is 
a  solvent  for  the  gum  or  resin  used.  The  surface  of  the 
work  is  coated  with  the  varnish.  The  solvent  evaporates, 
leaving  a  film  of  the  resin  which  was  dissolved  in  it. 
Wood,  or  anything  else  so  treated,  is  said  to  be 
varnished. 

The  medium  used  to  obtain  a  French  polished  surface, 
although  really  only  a  varnish,  is  one  of  a  much  finer 
kind  than  is  generally  suggested  by  that  word.  French 
polish  might  be  described  as  a  special  varnish  for  French 
polishing.  However,  both  the  finished  gloss  and  the 
material  by  means  of  which  the  gloss  is  produced  are 
commonly  spoken  of  as  French  polish.  The  material 
is  thin  varnish,  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  most 
suitable  for  producing  a  fine,  smooth,  glossy  surface  by 
the  French  mode  of  polishing. 

In  the  furniture  trade  the  cabinet  maker,  the 
upholsterer,  and  the  polisher  are  distinct  persons, 
each  often  totally  unfamiliar  with  any  branch  of  the 
business  beyond  his  own  special  one.  But  is  there  any 
sound  reason  for  this  being  the  case  1  The  furniture- 
trade  artisan  who  is  able  to  do  polishing  and  all  tnat 
appertains  to  it  will  command  a  better  market  for  his 
labour  than  he  who  ignores  everything  outside  his 
particular  groove.  This  applies  more  especially  to  those 
in  country  districts,  but  even  in  the  larger  centres  of 
population  facility  in  more  than  one  branch  of  a  trade 
cannot  fail  to  be  of  advantage. 

The  celebrated  Vernis  Martin  (which  means  simply 
Martin's  Varnish)  produced  a  very  fine  finished  surface 
by  means  of  some  material  or  manipulation  which  the 
inventor  kept  a  secret,  and  which  is  said  to  have  died 


12  WOOD  FINISHING. 

with  him.  This,  however,  seems  improbable,  for  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  his  success  induced  others  in 
the  same  line  of  business  to  imitate,  and  the  result  is 
French  polish.  This  present-day  French  polish  is  Vernis 
Martin  as  nearly  as  we  know  how  to  imitate  it.  Martin's 
materials,  and  his  mode  of  producing  the  gloss  or  polish, 
were,  probably,  different  from  ours;  but  he  made  his 
reputation  by  the  somewhat  cumbersome  processes  of 
smoothing  or  polishing  a  varnish ;  but  the  simpler 
process  now  known  as  French  polishing  is  sufficient  for 
practical  purposes,  and  only  those  prompted  by  curiosity 
will  care  to  try  a  more  tedious  way  of  getting  similar 
effects.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  not  be  assumed  that 
there  is  no  more  progress  to  be  made  in  the  art  of  wood- 
polishing. 

The  polisher  of  to-day  is  called  upon  to  do  many 
difficult  jobs.  It  is  not  enough  for  him  to  be  able  to  put 
a  clear  bright  polish  on  anything  that  may  be  brought 
to  him.  He  must  be  able  to  match  the  various  coloured 
woods,  giving  to  the  whole  an  appearance  of  carefully- 
selected  and  joined  veneers.  Here  a  knowledge  of  how  to 
use  chemicals,  stains,  and  dyed  polishes  must  be  brought 
into  use.  Some  parts  may  require  to  be  made  darker, 
dark  parts  may  have  to  be  made  lighter,  or  oak  may 
have  to  be  treated  so  as  to  present  an  appearance  of 
age. 

The  unvarnished  and  unpainted  oak  fittings  of  stables 
have  been  noticed  to  change  from  their  light  colour  to 
a  rich  brown.  Observant  minds  have  traced  this  result 
to  ammoniacal  fumes.  Acting  on  this  principle,  many 
oak  articles  are  given  an  appearance  of  age,  or  enriched 
in  colour,  by  shutting  them  up  for  a  time  in  a  cupboard 
or  air-tight  box  on  the  bottom  of  which  has  been  placed 
an  open  dish  of  liquor  ammonia.  Failing  a  suitable 
cupboard  in  which  to  do  this,  chemistry  comes  to  our 
aid,  and  we  get  a  like  result  by  wiping  over  with  a 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  common  soda,  or  lime- 
water.  With  careful  management,  and  by  the  aid  of 
these  and  dyed  polishes,  common  bay  wood  or  plain 


PROCESSES  OF  FINISHING   WOOD.  13 

mahogany  can  be  made  to  look  equal  to  Spanish 
mahogany. 

The  coloured  stringings  or  inlays,  with  their  many- 
coloured  woods,  found  round  work-boxes  and  on  writing- 
desks,  are  not  all  real.  The  polisher  and  the  chemist  have 
played  their  respective  parts.  And  there  are  musical- 
boxes,  etc.,  with  imitation  pearl  inlays  and  stringing, 
which  is  simply  bird's-eye  maple  dyed  green,  verdigris 
and  vinegar  being  mostly  used  for  this.  Again,  flowers, 
birds,  etc.,  may  be  painted  on  the  panels  of  doors ;  or 
failing  ability  to  paint,  it  is  possible  to  get  transfers 
that  look  exceedingly  well  when  polished  over ;  or  birds, 
flowers,  and  such-like  may  be  cut  out  from  thin  paper, 
and  fastened  to  the  work  with  thin  polish  or  varnish, 
giving  them,  when  dry,  a  coat  of  white,  hard  varnish, 
which  can  be  polished,  after  first  sizing  the  pictures  with 
isinglass. 

Polishing  partakes  a  good  deal  of  the  nature  of  an 
art.  Skill  is  necessary  to  make  a  good  polisher,  as 
well  as  knowledge  about  the  materials  and  their 
manipulation,  and  this  skill,  of  course,  is  only  to  be 
acquired  with  practice.  Some  people  regard  French 
polishing  as  a  mystery,  rather  than  an  art  to  be  acquired 
When  the  novice  tries  to  do  the  work  himself  the 
refusal  of  the  polish  or  gloss  to  come  up  under  his 
hands  is  indeed  mysterious.  French  polishing  looks 
such  easy,  almost  lazy,  work  (albeit,  somewhat  tending 
to  dirty  the  hands)  that  the  baffled  novice  may  be 
pardoned  for  thinking  he  has  got  hold  of  the  wrong 
stuff,  or  that  he  has  been  misdirected,  and  though 
either  of  these  circumstances  may  be  the  cause  of 
failure,  it  is  much  more  likely  to  be  owing  to  want  of 
skill.  Possibly  the  foregoing  remarks  may  have  a 
discouraging  effect  on  the  novice,  but  everything  will  be 
done  in  these  pages  to  remove  difficulties  and  to  indicate 
right  methods  of  working.  The  rest  will  depend  upon 
himself. 

The  beginner,  however  clever  he  may  be,  must  not 
expect  to  finish  his  work  as  well  as  those  who  have 


14  WOOD  FINISHING. 

had  years  of  experience,  and  he  need  not  be  discouraged 
if  his  first  attempts  do  not  reach  his  expectations. 
The  instructions  in  this  handbook  will  at  least  explain 
to  beginners  what  they  ought  to  do,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  even  the  more  advanced  will  find  in  it  suggestions 
which  will  lead  to  increased  skill. 


CHAPTER   IL 

PROCESSES  OF  STAINING   WOOD. 

STAINING  may  be  said  to  be  divided  into  three  classes  : 
— (a)  The  staining  of  deal  or  common  woods  to  match 
the  better  class,  such  as  ebony,  walnut,  rosewood, 
mahogany,  etc.  (6)  The  darkening  of  natural  wood  to 
imitate  a  superior  class  :  as,  for  example,  common  oak 
to  match  brown  or  pollard  oak,  common  baywood  to 
match  best  mahogany,  (c)  Decorative  work,  such  as 
the  imitation  of  inlaid  woods,  etc. 

Some  persons,  who  lay  claim  to  good  taste,  strongly 
object  to  staining  wood  on  the  ground  that  it  gives  an 
appearance  that  is  not  natural.  All  painted  woodwork 
has  the  natural  beauty  of  the  woods  entirely  covered. 
In  all  bare  woodwork  staining  has  probably  played  an 
important  part  in  the  decorative  treatment.  Even  wood 
of  the  finest  o^.ality  that  money  can  buy,  no  matter  how 
carefully  selected  and  joined,  will  be  treated  when  it 
passes  through  the  French  polisher's  hands  with  some 
staining  medium,  in  the  form  of  red  oil,  coloured 
"  filling- in,"  dyed  polish,  varnish,  or  stain,  to  bring  out 
the  beauty  of  the  woods  and  to  show  the  cabinet- 
maker's handiwork  to  the  best  advantage.  When 
veneers  are  used  in  furniture  manufacture,  the  chances 
that  stain  is  used  are  doubled.  In  modern  marquetry 
or  inlaid  work  it  will  be  found  that  the  woods  employed 
are  not  all  real.  The  old  exponents  of  marquetry  have 
left  excellent  specimens,  in  which  only  three  kinds  of 
wood  are  used ;  but  the  range  of  colours  and  shading 
as  now  used  is  much  greater. 

Many  persons  prefer  to  use  the  commoner  kinds  of 
wood  in  the  manufacture  of  their  household  furniture, 
and  by  staining  these  to  imitate  closely  the  more 


1 6  WOOD  FINISHING 

expensive  woods.  This  chapter  is  written  chiefly  for 
the  benefit  of  such  people.  It  is  recommended  that 
those  stains  which,  though  useful  enough  in  their  way, 
require  acids  or  chemical  and  special  apparatus,  should 
be  avoided,  as  the  same  end  can  be  gained  by  other  and 
simpler  means. 

There  are  two  methods  of  staining : — (a)  Surface- 
staining,  in  which,  as  the  name  implies,  the  staining  is 
effected  by  compounds,  in  the  nature  of  pigments,  laid 
upon  the  surface  like  paint,  and  forming  a  thick  opaque 
coating,  which  does  not,  to  any  considerable  degree,  pene- 
trate the  fibre  of  the  wood.  (6)  Body -staining,  in  which 
the  stain  is  usually  applied  as  a  thin  wash,  which,  enter- 
ing the  pores  of  the  wood,  colours  it  to  some  little  depth 
below  the  surface.  To  make  stains  penetrate  very 
deeply  into  wood  is  neither  an  expeditious  nor  a  simple 
process  to  those  unaccustomed  to  the  work.  For  or- 
dinary purposes,  body-staining  is  quite  sufficient. 

There  are  many  stains,  made  both  in  liquid  and  in 
powder.  Most  of  these  are  cheap  and  reliable.  One 
gallon  of  liquid  stain  will  cover  a  hundred  square  yards  ; 
and  after  buying  a  small  sample  bottle  and  finding  it 
suitable,  one  can  rely  upon  getting  a  further  supply  to 
match.  This  is  not  always  so  with  home-made  stains. 
Stains  in  powder  are  more  convenient  for  carrying. 
The  only  solvent  needed  is  water,  so  they  are  easy  to  use, 
and  valuable  for  stencilling  and  decorative  purposes. 

It  is  not  for  furniture  alone  that  these  stains  may 
be  used  ;  no  reason  appears  against  their  more  extensive 
use  for  interior  decoration  in  preference  to  painting 
and  graining.  Suppose  a  floor  margin  is  to  be  stained, 
and  it  is  desired  to  have  a  pattern  of  a  darker  shade 
around  the  inner  edge,  as  shown  in  the  illustrations 
which  appear  on  page  78.  It  is  easy  to  take  up  a 
little  powder  stain  and  mix  with  water  to  the  con- 
sistency of  thin  paint,  and  apply  by  means  of  a  stencil- 
plate  and  brush,  as  would  be  done  with  distemper.  In 
order  to  show  up  stained  work  to  the  best  advantage, 
the  woodwork  is  required  to  be  of  superior  class  and 


PROCESSES  OF  STAINING   WOOD.  17 

free  from  sap ;  this  is  an  extra  expense  in  the  first 
instance.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  less  expensive  to 
keep  the  wood  fresh  and  clean  when  stained  than  it 
would  be  to  apply  successive  coats  of  paint,  then  grain 
and  varnish. 

Dealers  sell  combined  stains  and  varnish  as  a  means 
of  simplifying  the  process.  One  material  will  often  do 
duty  for  shades  varying  from  light  oak  to  dark  walnut, 
the  light  shade  being  gained  by  one  coat,  successive 
coats  giving  darker  shades  and,  consequently,  thicker 
surface,  a  process  which  cannot  be  commended. 
Although  cheap  and  simple,  these  combined  stains  and 
varnishes  cannot  be  recommended  for  hard  wear.  Being 
mixed  in  varnish,  the  stain  does  not  penetrate  the 
fibres  of  the  wood  to  the  same  extent  as  when  applied 
alone.  When  these  combined  stains  and  varnishes  are 
used,  the  cheaper  class  should  be  avoided,  as  the  soft, 
resinous  varnish  employed  will  readily  show  scratches 
and  marks. 

Most  druggists  sell  aniline  dyes  in  packets  and  in  tubes 
which  may  be  usefully  employed  on  wood  for  self  colours 
only— as  distinct  from  various  imitations  of  woods. 

Their  introduction  has  had  a  disastrous  effect  on 
the  old  vegetable-dye  market.  Orchella  wood,  madder, 
safflower,  and  turmeric,  mentioned  in  old  recipes,  are 
now  practically  unsaleable,  and  dealers  generally  do  not 
keep  them  in  stock  ;  nevertheless,  vegetable  stains  are 
exceedingly  useful. 

Aniline  dyes  are  of  two  kinds — one  dissolves  in 
water,  the  other  in  spirits ;  but  they  have  a  tendency  to 
fade  on  exposure  to  light.  To  the  former  a  little  vinegar, 
which  has  the  property  of  preventing  this  fading  to  a 
great  extent,  can  be  added.  To  mix  aniline  dyes  with 
varnish,  they  must  be  dissolved  in  spirits— to  use  with 
a  spirit-varnish  or  naphtha-varnish.  They  are  only 
partially  successful  in  oil-varnish  or  painters'-varnish. 
The  quantity  required  to  stain  a  pint  of  varnish 
must  be  a  matter  of  experiment,  as  so  much  depends 
on  the  covering  quality  of  the  varnish,  and  whether 


1 8  WOOD  FINISHING. 

the  tone  required  is  to  be  got  in  one,  two,  or  three 
applications. 

Marquetry  work  can  be  very  closely  imitated  by 
means  of  stains  only,  the  stains  used  being  purely 
vegetable.  It  is  claimed  that  the  stains  are  durable, 
and  that  they  leave  no  smell  or  stickiness.  Each  bottle 
of  stain,  medium,  preparing  solution,  and  polish  may  be 
bought  for  about  sixpence.  Neat  little  boxes,  containing 
seven  stains  and  the  three  other  requisites,  are  also  pre- 
pared, and  sold  for  about  five  shillings.  The  colours 
employed  include  -walnut,  mahogany,  ebony,  green,  red, 
yellow,  rosewood,  satinwood,  grey,  olive,  blue,  and 
crimson. 

The  large  number  of  colours  that  can  be  obtained 
from  dye  woods,  which  include  logwood,  red  sanders, 
madder,  fustic,  orchella  wood,  safflower,  sandal  wood, 
Socotrine  aloes,  Barbadoes  aloes,  and  nut-galls,  is  worth 
noticing. 

Many  are  to  be  obtained  from  common  plants  grow- 
ing in  abundance  almost  everywhere.  The  well-known 
blueberry,  when  boiled  down  with  a  little  alum  and 
a  solution  of  copperas,  will  develop  an  excellent  blue 
colour  ;  treated  in  the  same  manner  with  a  solution  of 
nut-galls,  it  produces  a  dark  brown  tint;  with  alum, 
verdigris,  and  sal-ammoniac,  various  shades  of  purple 
and  red  can  be  obtained  from  it.  The  fruit  of  the  elder- 
berry, so  frequently  used  for  colouring  spirits,  will  also 
produce  a  blue  colour  when  treated  with  alum.  The 
privet  boiled  in  a  solution  of  salt,  furnishes  a  serviceable 
colour,  and  the  over-ripe  berries  yield  a  serviceable 
red.  The  seeds  of  the  common  spindle  tree,  when 
treated  with  sal-ammoniac,  produce  a  beautiful  purple- 
red.  The  bark  of  the  currant-bush,  treated  with  a 
solution  of  alum,  produces  a  brown.  Yellow  is  obtained 
from  the  bark  of  the  apple-tree,  the  box,  the  ash,  the 
buckthorn,  the  poplar,  the  elm,  etc.,  when  boiled  in  water 
and  treated  with  alum.  A  lively  green  is  furnished  by 
the  broom  corn. 

The  art  of  marquetry  wood -staining  offers  scope  for 


PROCESSES  OF  STAINING   WOOD,  19 

the  display  of  artistic  designs  and  for  the  development 
of  the  purely  manual  faculties,  and  its  suitability  for 
amateurs  is  becoming  generally  known.  The  requisite 
apparatus  is  neither  large  nor  costly ;  the  work  can 
be  made  effective,  and  generally  novel ;  and  any  kind 
of  wood  may  be  utilised,  though  holly,  sycamore,  and 
lime  are  the  best  varieties. 


CHAPTER  m. 

FRENCH     POLISHING. 

VAENISHINO  can  be  done  by  any  person  with  little  or 
no  practice,  and  is  suitable  for  common  articles  of  furni- 
ture ;  but  French  polishing  cannot  be  done  successfully 
without  considerable  practice,  though  when  skilfully 
managed  it  enhances  the  beauty  of  most  woods.  The 
beginner  should  not  attempt  to  polish  any  article  of 
value  before  he  has  gained  experience  by  practising 
upon  unimportant  articles. 

Although  it  may  be  said  that  each  kind  of  timber 
requires  different  treatment,  the  general  manipulation  is 
very  similar  for  all.  The  ingredients  of  the  various 
polishing  preparations  are  generally  few  and  simple, 
and  success  does  not  necessarily  lie  in  complication 
and  multiplicity  of  mixtures,  in  the  main,  French 
polishing  consists  in  coating  the  wood  with  a  thin  film 
of  shellac,  either  pure  or  mixed  with  other  gums  and 
resins,  and  then  getting  on  that  film  a  gloss  as  brilliant 
and  durable  as  possible. 

Generally,  the  wood  has  to  be  prepared  and  various 
minor  details  attended  to  before  this  can  be  done. 
For  example,  the  pores  of  open  grained  wood  must  be 
stopped  or,  as  the  process  is  generally  called,  filled,  to 
get  a  smooth  surface  and  to  prevent  excessive  absorp- 
tion of  the  liquid  polish.  Then  the  appearance  of  some 
woods  is  improved  and  enriched  by  oiling  them  before 
applying  the  polish.  This  oiling,  to  a  certain  extent, 
darkens  and  mellows  them,  and  brings  up  the  figure. 

The  temperature  and  atmosphere  of  the  place  in  which 
French  polishing  is  done  are  of  considerable  importance. 
Work  cannot  be  done  properly  in  a  cold  or  damp  room, 
as  then  the  polish  will  get  chilled,  and  as  it  sets  on  the 
wood  become  opaque  and  cloudy.  To  avoid  this  the 


FRENCH  POLISHING.  21 

polisher  should  work  in  a  warm  room.  The  temperature 
for  a  living  room,  about  70°,  is  about  that  suited  for 
polishing.  In  warm  summer  weather  a  fire  is  not  neces- 
sary, but  in  winter  it  is.  If  the  polisher  notices  that 
his  polish  chills,  he  must  increase  the  heat  of  his  room. 
If  a  moderate  amount  of  warmth  be  brought  near  the 
surface  as  soon  as  any  chill  is  observed  it  will  probably 
disappear.  A  small  article  may  be  taken  to  the  fire,  but 
with  large  work  this  course  would  hardly  be  con- 
venient. In  such  cases  a  good  plan  is  to  hold  something 
warm  a  short  distance  from  the  chilled  surface,  but  on 
no  account  must  it  touch,  nor  must  the  heat  be  great 
enough  to  scorch  the  polish.  A  common  plan,  but  not 
altogether  a  good  one,  is  to  hold  a  piece  of  burning 
paper  near  the  chill.  An  ordinary  flat  iron  is  very 
useful  for  small  chilled  patches.  When  the  article  is 
cold  or  damp,  chill  is  more  likely  to  occur.  It  is, 
therefore,  always  necessary  to  make  sure  after  a  stain 
has  been  used  that  the  wood  has  become  thoroughly  dry. 

Not  less  important  is  the  employment  of  suitable 
materials,  both  in  the  polish  and  in  the  tools  of  the 
polisher's  art.  These  latter  consist  almost  entirely  of 
wadding  or  cotton  wool  and  soft  linen  or  cotton  rags, 
from  which  the  rubbers  to  apply  the  polish  are  made ; 
and  a  few  bottles  are  wanted  to  hold  the  various  polishes, 
stains,  and  their  components. 

The  pad  with  which  French  polish  is  applied  is 
called  the  rubber.  Without  it  the  French  polisher 
can  do  little  in  actual  polishing,  although  he  may 
not  require  it  in  the  preliminary  operations  of  oiling 
and  staining.  However  simple  in  itself  the  rubber 
may  be,  it  should  be  properly  and  carefully  made  of 
suitable  materials  ;  otherwise  good  work  cannot  be  done 
with  it.  Those  who  have  seen  polishers  at  work  may 
be  inclined  to  infer  that  no  great  care  is  necessary,  for  a 
dirty  rag  covering  an  equally  uninviting  lump  of  wadding 
is  usually  seen.  Examination  will  show  the  rubber  to 
be  more  carefully  made  than  might  havo  been  expected, 
and  the  expert  polisher  would  probably  prefer  it  to  a 


22  WOOD  FINISHING. 

nice  clean-looking  rubber  such  as  a  novice  would 
choose.  Nevertheless,  a  dirty  rubber  is  not  wanted, 
for  dirt  is  fatal  to  first-class  work ;  hence  the  polisher 
should  keep  his  rubbers  scrupulously  clean.  They  will 
naturally  get  stained  and  discoloured  with  the  polish, 
but  that  is  a  very  different  matter  from  being  dirty. 
Old  rubbers  are  preferable  to  new  ones,  provided  they 
have  been  properly  taken  care  of  and  not  allowed  to 
get  hard. 

For  flat  surfaces  or  fretwork  a  wad  may  be  prepared 
by  using  a  strip  of  torn  woollen  cloth  from  1  in.  to  2  in. 
wide.  Cloth  with  a  cut  edge  is  not  recommended  for 
this  purpose,  as  it  is  too  harsh.  Roll  the  strip  very 
tightly  into  a  wad  about  1  in.,  2  in.,  or  3  in.  diameter, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  work,  and  tie  tightly  round 
with  fine  twine  (Fig.  1).  This  will  give  as  nearly  as 
possible  a  rubber  resembling  Fig.  2.  This  wad  is  put 
into  a  double  thickness  of  linen  cloth,  and  the  ends 
are  gathered  up  like  the  ends  of  a  pudding-cloth ;  they 
are  not  tied,  but  are  grasped  as  a  hand-piece  while  being 
used.  This  form  of  rubber  would,  however,  be  useless 
for  bodying  up  mouldings,  beads,  quirks,  moulded 
hand-rails,  newel  posts,  etc.,  and  when  polishing  large 
mahogany  doors  or  other  framed  furniture  it  would  be 
impossible  to  get  well  into  the  corners  of  sunk  panels, 
as  in  Fig.  3. 

A  well-shaped,  soft,  pliable  rubber,  with  its  rag 
covering  free  from  creases,  is  to  a  practical  French 
polisher  equivalent  to  a  sharp,  finely-set,  smoothing 
plane  in  the  hands  of  a  cabinet  maker.  The  form  in 
general  use  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  With  such  a  rubber 
made  of  wadding,  one  is  enabled  to  get  into  corners, 
round  turned  work,  and  up  to  the  edges  of  mouldings 
in  a  manner  impossible  with  a  hard,  round  rubber.  To 
make  it,  take  a  sheet  of  wadding— this  is  9  in.  wide— 
and  tear  off  a  piece  6  in.  long ;  this  will  form  a  con- 
veniently-sized rubber,  suitable  for  most  work  ;  but  for 
small  work  use  one  of  smaller  size.  Double  the  wadding, 
making  it  6  in.  by  4|in.  Squeeze  this  in  the  hand, 


FRENCH  POLISHING.  23 

keeping    the    skin    unbroken,  till  in  shape  it  nearly 
resembles  half  a  pear;  the  illustrations,  Figs.  4,  5,  6, 


Fig-.  1.— Side  View  of  Rubber  for  French  Polishing. 


Fig.  2. — Face  of  Roll  used  for  French  Polishing. 


Fig.  3.— Rubber  used  in  Corner  of  Framed  Panel. 

show  what  is  meant  and  the  method  of  holding  it.  The 
rubber  should  then  be  charged  with  polish,  and  covered 
with  a  piece  of  clean,  soft  rag.  In  folding  the  rag,  twist 
it  on  the  upper  side  of  the  rubber.  Each  additional 


24  WOOD  FINISHING. 

twist  will  bring  it  to  a  sharper  point  and  cause  the 
polish  to  ooze  through  its  surface.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  put  a  rag  covering  on  the  rubbers  first  used.  The 
rubber  must  be  kept  free  from  creases,  otherwise  it 
will  cause  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied  to  be 
stringy  or  full  of  ridges. 

Though  rags  have  been  mentioned  as  suitable  for  the 
outer  covering  or  casing  of  the  pad,  some  care  in  their 
selection  is  necessary.  A  piece  with  a  seam  across  it 


I'ig.  4. — Usual  form  of         Fig.  5. — Form  of  Rubber  for 
Rubber  for  French  Polishing.  getting  into  Corners. 


Fig.  6.— Method  of  holding  the  Rubber  when  in  use. 

would  never  do  for  a  rubber  ;  and  anything  which 
would  tend  to  scratch  the  film  of  polish  as  it  is  being 
laid  or  worked  on  in  the  final  operation  of  spiriting  off 
must  be  carefully  avoided.  They  may  be  either  cotton 
or  linen,  and  ought  to  be  perfectly  soft  and  fine,  or,  at 
any  rate,  free  from  knots  or  lumps.  Some  polishers 
advise  the  exclusive  use  of  linen,  but  this  is  a  needless 
restriction.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  new  material 
may  be  used  as  well  as  rags.  To  render  this  suitable, 
all  traces  of  the  sizing  and  stiffening  with  which  it  may 
have  been  finished  must  be  removed  by  a  thorough 
washing. 


FRENCH  POLISHING.  25 

Any  material  to  be  used  for  a  polishing  rubber  must 
be  thoroughly  well  dried.  Indeed,  the  necessity  of 
avoiding  damp  cannot  be  too  much  insisted  on. 
With  regard  to  the  substance  of  the  rubber,  white 
wadding  is  the  best  to  use,  and  this  is  readily  ob- 
tainable from  any  upholsterer  or  chemist.  It  may  be 
purer  if  got  from  the  latter,  but  it  is  certainly  much 
dearer  than  any  reasonable  upholsterer  would  charge 
for  something  equally  suitable.  Wadding  bought  from 
an  upholsterer  has  a  thin  skin  on  one  or  both  sides, 
according  to  whether  it  has  been  split  or  not.  This 
skin  must  be  removed,  leaving  nothing  but  the  soft 
cotton.  For  a  few  pence  enough  ought  to  be  obtainable 
to  last  a  considerable  time.  It  may  be  useful  to  know 
that,  if  it  is  clean,  the  raw  material  used  in  cotton 
manufacturing  districts  will  do  as  well  as  the  finest 
wadding.  Cotton  flock,  used  by  upholsterers  as  a 
stuffing  for  mattresses,  chairs,  etc.,  is  not  suitable  for 
polishing,  except  perhaps  for  the  coarsest  work.  Even 
for  this  it  should  not  be  used  if  anything  better  is  avail- 
able. Rubbers  composed  entirely  of  flannel  are  occa- 
sionally recommended  for  special  kinds  of  work.  It 
is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  advantage  in  using  flannel, 
except  for  large  flat  surfaces,  which  can  be  got  over 
more  quickly  with  a  large  rubber  than  with  a  small  one. 
The  novice  is  advised  to  use  the  wadding  rubber,  and  to 
become  an  expert  polisher  with  it  before  experimenting 
with  anything  else. 

The  size  of  the  rubber  will,  to  some  extent,  de- 
pend on  the  nature  of  the  work,  but  that  above  given 
may  be  regarded  as  generally  suitable.  A  very  large 
rubber  is  not  advisable  at  first,  and  the  polisher,  as  he 
gains  experience,  must  be  guided  by  circumstances.  In 
handling  it,  moreover,  the  polisher  will  be  equally 
guided;  a  rubber  of  moderate  dimensions  is  usually 
held  by  the  tips  of  the  thumb  and  fingers,  but  the 
polisher  will  probably  find  a  large  rubber  can  be  more 
conveniently  used  by  holding  it  in  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

The  rubber  must  be  charged  with  polish  for  use, 


a  6  WOOD  FINISHING. 

and  some  care  will  have  to  be  exercised  in  doing  this. 
The  covering  of  the  rubber  is  opened  so  that  a  little 
polish  can  be  dropped  on  the  wadding.  A  convenient 
way  of  doing  this  is  to  have  the  polish  in  a  bottle,  the 
cork  of  which  has  a  channel  or  notch  cut  in  it  to  allow 
only  a  few  drops  to  escape  at  a  time.  Some  polishers 
dip  a  portion  of  the  rubber  into  the  polish,  but  the 
other  method  is  more  generally  adopted.  It  must 
not  be  saturated  ;  only  enough  polish  to  moisten  the 
wadding  must  be  used,  or  what  will  appear  through 
the  rag  covering  when  pressed.  The  rubber  having 
been  thus  'charged,  gather  up  the  edges  of  rag  as 
before  directed.  Then,  to  distribute  the  polish  equally, 
press  the  rubber  moderately  firmly  into  the  palm  of  the 
other  hand.  The  rubber  ought  now  to  be  ready  for 
application  to  the  wood,  which  may  be  assumed  to  have 
been  properly  prepared  to  receive  its  first  coating  of 
polish. 

At  this  stage  the  principal  thing  is  to  get  a  good 
body  of  polish  evenly  spread  on  the  wood.  How  this 
may  best  be  done  depends  on  circumstances  ;  but  if  the 
desired  result  is  obtained,  the  precise  method  is  of  second- 
ary consequence.  Let  it  be  assumed  that  the  work  to  be 
done  is  a  small  flat  surface.  With  moderate  pressure 
on  the  rubber,  quickly  wipe  over  the  entire  surface, 
first  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  then  across  it.  Then 
without  delay  go  over  it  more  minutely,  the  motion 
generally  adopted  for  the  rubber  being  shown  in  the 
illustration  on  p.  38  (Fig.  7).  At  first  the  pressure 
should  be  gentle,  but  it  should  be  increased  as  the  polish 
gets  worked  in  and  the  rubber  drier,  though  at  no  time 
must  the  rubbing  decline  to  scrubbing. 

While  the  rubber  is  in  contact  with  the  wood  it 
must  be  kept  constantly  in  motion.  An  important 
point  is  not  to  allow  the  rubber  to  remain  stationary 
on  the  woodwork  during  temporary  absence  or  at  the 
end  of  the  day's  work.  As  the  rubber  gets  dry  it 
must  be  recharged  with  polish,  but  let  the  novice 
beware  of  using  this  in  excess. 


FRENCH  POLISHING,  a  7 

Old  rubbers  are  better  than  new,  so  when  done  with 
they  should  be  kept  in  an  air-tight  receptacle,  such  as  a 
tin  canister  or  a  biscuit  box.  When  any  job  is  finished, 
do  not  throw  the  rubber  away  under  the  impression 
that  a  rubber  once  laid  aside  becomes  useless.  This 
occurs  only  when  it  is  left  exposed  to  the  air,  because 
the  spirit  evaporates,  leaving  the  shellac  to  harden.  If 
laid  aside  for  a  length  of  time  the  rubbers  will  become 
hard,  even  when  kept  in  a  box,  unless  it  be  perfectly 
air  tight,  which  it  probably  will  not  be.  A  few  drops  of 
spirit  put  into  the  box  now  and  then  will,  however, 
keep  the  contents  in  proper  condition  for  use. 


28 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FELLERS  FOE  WOOD  AND  FILLING  IN. 

FILLERS  are  used  by  French  polishers  for  much  the 
same  reason  that  size  is  used  before  varnishing — viz.  to 
prevent  immoderate  absorption  of  the  polish  by  the 
wood.  French  polish,  or  even  thicker  varnish,  when 
applied  to  wood,  sinks  in  or  is  absorbed  in  places, 
instead  of  remaining  on  the  surface  in  a  uniform  coat. 
Here  and  there  it  will  be  observed  that  the  polish  or 
varnish  has  given  more  gloss  than  elsewhere.  Where 
the  gloss  is  brightest  the  varnish  has  sunk  least. 

The  grain  may  be  filled  up  by  going  over  the  wood 
with  polish  till  the  pores  are  closed,  and  some  beginners 
may  want  to  know  why  anything  else  in  the  nature 
of  a  filler  should  be  used.  The  reason  is  that  com- 
paratively valuable  French  polish  need  not  be  used 
when  a  cheaper  material  serves  the  purpose,  the  use  of 
which  also  saves  time.  Woods  that  are  open  in  the 
grain  and  porous  specially  need  a  filler,  while  fine  close- 
grained  woods  do  not,  and  may  be  polished  without. 
Still,  a  suitable  filler  can  do  no  harm  to  any  kind  of 
wood,  however  fine  the  grain  may  be,  so  there  can  be  no 
disadvantage  in  going  over  it  with  one  preparatory  to 
polishing.  Though  it  may  be  a  slight  waste  of  time,  a 
preliminary  rub  over  with  polish  suffices  when  working 
on  a  tine  wood,  such  as  olive,  which  is  both  close  and  hard. 
To  attain  the  desired  thin  glossy  film  of  shellac,  which 
shall  not  be  liable  to  grow  dull  unreasonably  soon,  the 
woods  ordinarily  used  in  furniture — ash,  oak,  mahogany, 
walnut,  etc. — should  have  the  grain  filled,  for  they 
are  all  of  comparatively  open  grain ;  ash  and  oak 
being  especially  coarse,  are  called  by  polishers  "  hungry 
woods."  Polishers  usually  give  such  woods  one  or  more 
coats  of  spirit  varnish  as  an  aid  to  filling  up  the  grain. 

Before     commencing     the     process     of     filling-in, 


FILLERS  FOR   WOOD  AND  FILLING  IN.       29 

thoroughly  brush  all  dust  out  of  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
for  this  is  wood-dust,  glass  from  the  glass-paper,  and  dirt 
—all  inimical  to  grain  lustre  if  mixed  up  with  the  grain 
stopper. 

For  filling  a  cheap  class  of  work,  many  polishers 
content  themselves  with  giving  the  work  one  or  two 
coats  of  glue  or  patent  size,  heavily  stained  by  the 
addition  of  some  dry  pigment.  For  mahogany  finish 
add  Venetian  red  till  it  gives  quite  a  red  tinge;  for 
walnut  add  brown  umber ;  for  pine,  add  yellow  ochre. 
Apply  the  size  hot  with  a  brush,  and  rub  it  in  lightly 
with  a  piece  of  rag,  finishing  the  way  of  the  grain,  and 
taking  care  in  the  case  of  turned  or  moulded  work  to 
get  the  filler  well  in  the  recessed  parts.  Of  course,  work 
that  has  been  sized  will  not  need  filling  in. 

As  many  different  kinds  of  fillers  are  used,  and 
each  has  its  advocates,  it  will  be  advisable  to  name 
the  principal  fillers  used  in  the  trade,  and  to  make  a  few 
remarks  about  each,  so  that  learners  can  experiment 
with  them,  and  perhaps  finally  fix  on  that  which  may 
seem  to  suit  best.  All  will  be  found  reliable,  for  good 
work  is  turned  out  by  polishers  with  any  of  them,  and 
even  an  extremely  prejudiced  individual  would  hesitate 
to  say  that  any  one  is  really  bad,  though  he  uses  only 
that  which  suits  him  best  Sometimes,  owing  to  the 
price,  he  uses  the  easiest  and  quickest,  irrespective  of  its 
quality. 

Wood  fillers  ready  for  use  are  made  for  most  kinds 
of  wood,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  require  only  thinning 
with  a  little  turpentine.  When  it  is  desired  to  make 
a  filler  instead  of  purchasing  one  ready  made,  proceed 
as  follows  :  Take  a  portion  of  either  china  clay  or 
cornflour;  add  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  stir  until  the 
mixture  is  of  the  consistency  of  putty.  Then  add 
patent  dryers  and  thin  with  turpentine.  If  the  wood 
on  which  the  filler  is  to  be  used  is  to  be  kept  light  in 
colour,  use  raw  oil  and  the  lightest  variety  of  dryer. 

Apply  the  filler  with  a  pound  brush,  rubbing  it  well 
into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  Allow  it  to  remain  on  for, 


30  WOOD  FINISHING. 

say,  half  an  hour,  and  then  proceed  to  remove  all  of  it 
from  the  surface.  Rub  off  as  much  as  possible  with 
shavings,  or  wood  wool,  and  with  a  pick,  made  of 
a  piece  of  wood  sharpened  at  the  end,  remove  the 
superfluous  filler  from  the  carvings,  mouldings,  and 
corners.  Mouldings  having  sharp  edges  or  lines,  such 
as  sunken  beads,  are  best  treated  with  a  short-haired 
brush,  such  as  a  housemaid's  scrubbing-brush.  Re- 
member that  the  object  is  to  remove  as  much  of  the 
filler  as  possible,  because  if  any  be  left  on  the  surface  it 
will  show  up  in  dark  spots  when  the  work  is  finished. 
It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  the  filler  must  be 
properly  tinted  to  produce  the  colour  required,  and  to 
accord  with  the  stain.  The  pigments  to  be  used  for 
producing  certain  effects  will  be  referred  to  in  another 
chapter. 

The  filler  to  be  mentioned  next  is  varnish,  or  extra 
thick  polish,  which  is  rubbed  into  the  wood  till  the 
pores  are  full.  This  is  a  clean  and  natural  filler,  but  it 
is  a  troublesome  one,  and  the  results  are  not  better  than 
those  arrived  at  by  a  cheaper  and  more  expeditious 
method.  Occasionally  it  may  be  an  advantage  to  use 
this,  though  for  trade  purposes  and  at  trade  prices  on 
ordinary  furniture  the  polisher  is  out  of  pocket  by 
employing  it.  This  process  of  filling  is  rubbing  in  polish 
or  thin  varnish,  and  when  it  is  dry  smoothing  down 
with  fine  glass-paper.  The  application  of  polish  and 
paper  must  alternate  till  the  former  no  longer  sinks,  and 
this  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  wood  and  on  the 
filler  used.  The  process  will  be  completed  much  sooner 
with  a  fine,  close-grained,  hard  wood  than  with  a  coarse 
open  grained  one,  such  as  ash. 

Brown  hard  varnish  and  polish  mixed  form  a  fair 
preliminary  application,  but  they  do  not  tend  to  a  good 
surface  at  the  finish,  so  are  suitable  for  common  work 
only.  The  proportions  are  two-thirds  polish  and  one- 
third  varnish  (brown  or  white  hard) ;  the  mixture  is 
put  on  carefully  and  quickly  with  a  brush.  It  must 
not  be  brushed,  but  must  be  let  alone  till  hard. 


FILLERS  roR   WOOD  AND  FILLISG  /.v.       31 

Whiting  and  turpentine  can  be  recommended  for  a 
good  general  filler.  The  filler  is  both  clean  and  econom- 
ical, does  not  raise  the  grain  as  when  water  is  used,  and 
contains  no  grease;  it  is,  therefore,  not  open  to  the 
objections  which  are  urged  against  other  fillers,  and  in 
the  hands  of  inexperienced  polishers  it  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  likely  to  ensure  a  successful  result.  An  advantage 
it  possesses  over  plaster-of-Paris  and  water  is  that  it 
does  not  harden  quickly;  some  urge  that  it  does  not 
harden  sufficiently,  but  this  objection  cannot  be  treated 
seriously.  Use  finely-crushed  whiting,  and  mix  to  the 
consistency  of  thick  paint,  but  stjll  thin  enough  to 
be  worked  into  the  wood.  Take  up  a  little  at  a 
time  on  coarse  rag  or  canvas,  and  rub  well  in  cross- 
ways  of  the  grain,  the  work  having  previously  been 
wiped  over  with  raw  linseed  oil ;  apply  equally  all  over 
the  article  to  be  polished.  "Wipe,  off  clean  and  set 
aside  a  few  hours  or  overnight  to  enable  the  filling  to 
set,  though,  if  necessary,  polishing  may  be  proceeded 
with  at  once. 

Direct  filling  with  polish  is  modified  by  the  use 
of  fine  pumice-powder,  which  renders  the  process  quicker 
and  better.  This  method  is  more  practised  in  France 
than  in  this  country  ;  here  it  is  sometimes  employed  by 
the  trade,  but  it  has  not  been  generally  adopted.  It 
requires  some  experience  to  use  it  with  advantage,  but 
apart  from  the  time  required,  it  is  doubtful  if  a  better 
means  of  filling  the  grain  has  been  discovered,  for  it  is 
both  clean  and  free  from  greasiness.  Polish  is  the  basis 
of  this  filler,  the  pumice-powder  being  useful  in  assist- 
ing to  fill  by  getting  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  as  well 
as  in  rubbing  down  inequalities  of  the  polish.  The 
powder  is  kept  in  a  muslin  bag,  and  lightly  sprinkled  on 
the  wood,  which  is  then  gone  over  with  an  ordinary 
rubber  fairly  charged  with  polish.  Only  a  small 
quantity  of  the  pumice-powder  should  be  used  at  a  time, 
or  the  work  suffers.  Instead  of  sprinkling  the  powder 
on  the  wood,  some  polishers  prefer  to  put  it  on  the  sole 
of  the  rubber.  Whatever  method  be  adopted  the  work 


3  a  WOOD  FINISHING. 

will  require  papering  down  afterwards,  bat  perhaps 
not  to  the  same  extent  as  when  no  pumice-powder 
has  been  used. 

The  object  of  pumice-powder  is  twofold  :  First,  as  in 
coach  painting,  for  levelling-down  purposes,  and  to  bring 
up  the  lustre  of  the  varnish  by  giving  a  dead  under- 
surface  on  which  to  apply  it ;  secondly,  for  use  on 
spirit  varnish  or  French  polished  surfaces  for  dulling 
purposes,  thus  giving  what  is  known  on  antique  furniture 
as  egg-shell  finish,  or  that  semi-lustrous  finish  largely 
practised  in  the  United  States  on  American  organs. 

A  very  much  used  filler  is  composed  of  Russian 
tallow,  mixed  with  either  plaster-of-Paris  or  whiting. 
The  chief  thing  in  its  favour  is  that  it  is  a  quick  pro- 
cess, and  therefore  allows  of  polishing  being  done  at  a 
comparatively  small  cost  of  labour ;  but  tallow  is  not 
a  nice  material  to  work  with.  The  tallow  and  plaster 
are  made  into  a  stiff  paste  and  well  rubbed  into  the 
wood,  from  which  any  excess  must  be  wiped  off.  Any 
fillers  that  set  hard  must  be  wiped  off  while  they  are 
still  soft.  Apart  from  its  unpleasantness  in  working, 
tallow  is  apt  to  increase  the  tendency  of  the  polished 
wood  to  sweat,  through  the  grease  breaking  through  the 
film  of  lac.  Oil  or  grease,  in  connection  with  polish,  can 
only  be  regarded  as  a  necessary  eviL  There  are  fillers 
which  do  not  contain  grease,  and  it  is  just  as  well  to  use 
them,  even  if  it  be  admitted  that  a  tallow  filler  is  not 
prejudicial  to  good  work  or  to  durability. 

Beyond  wiping  over  with  an  oily  rag,  to  bring  out 
the  figure  and  tone  of  the  wood,  the  less  oil  is  used  the 
better  for  permanency  of  lustre,  as  oil  forms  no  part  of 
polish  in  itself,  being  used  only  as  a  vehicle  to  work 
the  gums  easily.  The  true  secret  of  laying  a  polish 
that  shall  bear  future  inspection  lies  in  using  the  oil  so 
that  it  shall  always  be  on  the  top  of  the  polish — not 
underneath ;  and  the  final  point  is  to  remove  this  oil 
in  finishing. 

Since  grease  is  objectionable,  it  may  be  asked  whether 
water  cannot  be  used  instead,  to  render  the  plaster  or 


FILLERS  FOR   WOOD  AND  FILLING  Iff.       33 

whiting  soft  and  pasty.  It  often  is  ;  but  the  objection 
is  that  water  is  apt  to  raise  the  grain  of  the  wood,  which 
means  making  it  rough,  whilst  the  tallow  does  not 
raise  the  wood  at  all  The  rough  surface  can  be  rubbed 
smooth  with  glass-paper.  Whiting,  or  plaster-of-Paris 
and  water,  can  certainly  be  used  as  a  filler,  and  this 
mixture  is  preferable  to  those  in  which  tallow  or  grease 
is  found. 

As  tallow  is  unpleasant  stuff,  many  polishers  discard 
it  in  favour  of  raw  linseed  oil,  mixed  with  some  polish. 
The  use  of  this  with  whiting  overcomes  the  objection  to 
water ;  but  this  is  not  altogether  a  suitable  filler  for  the 
novice.  With  too  much  oil,  sweating  is  apt  to  occur 
some  time  ;  while  with  too  little  oil  in  the  mixture, 
the  filling  is  apt  to  remain  on  the  surface  instead  of 
being  forced  into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  It  is  not 
possible  to  give  the  proportions  of  oil  and  polish  which 
shall  be  suitable  to  all  occasions,  so  the  polisher  must 
use  his  own  discretion,  and  he  may  as  well  leave  this 
filler  alone  till  he  has  acquired  experience ;  but  in 
experienced  hands  it  is  a  really  good  one. 

A  little  plaster  and  polish,  without  the  oil,  make  a 
good  filler,  but  it  must  be  rubbed  in,  and  all  the  super- 
fluous filler  removed  \rith  fine  glass-paper  before  using 
pure  polish. 

A  good  filler  for  oak  and  ash  is  water  and  methy- 
lated spirits  and  plaster-of-Paris.  It  should  be  pre- 
pared and  used  in  the  following  manner : — Crush 
the  plaster-of-Paris  into  a  fine  powder,  and  place  in 
a  saucer  or  other  open  vessel ;  in  another  put  the 
spirits.  Then  take  a  piece  of  soft  rag,  and  soak  in  the 
spirits ;  then  dip  in  the  plaster,  rub  hard  into  the  wood, 
and  clean  off.  Do  not  mix  the  plaster  and  spirits 
together  in  a  paste,  like  the  ordinary  filling.  A  pre- 
liminary rub  with  polish  before  filling  in  will  keep  the 
grain  smooth,  and  stop  the  sweating  to  a  great  extent,  as 
there  would  be  a  foundation  of  polish. 

It  is  advisable  that  white  fillers  should  be  tinted  to 
correspond  with  the  colour  of  the  wood  on  which  they 
c 


34  WOOD  FINISHING. 

are  used.  The  polisher  will  seldom  have  occasion  to  use 
in  his  fillers  any  colours  other  than  the  following  :  for 
mahogany,  rose-pink  ;  for  walnut,  or  any  brown  wood, 
such  as  stained  oak,  Vandyke  brown  or  umber  ;  and  for 
ebonised  work,  gas-black  is  as  good  as  any.  Light 
woods,  of  course,  may  have  any  white  filler  applied ; 
but  if  it  should  be  deemed  advisable  to  tint  it,  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  doing  so,  as  an  exact  match  is  not 
necessary. 

In  addition  to  these  ordinary  fillers,  common  to  the 
British  workshop,  there  are  several  patent  and  American 
fillers;  but  none  of  them  has  come  into  general  use, 
nor  seems  likely  to  supersede  the  commoner  varieties. 
A  complaint  against  them  is  that  they  are  more 
expensive,  without  having  sufficient  compensating 
advantages. 


35 


CHAPTER  V. 

BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF. 

Tua  term  bodying,  applied  to  the  polisher's  art,  means 
coating  the  wood  with  a  thin,  evenly-distributed  layer 
of  the  polish.  The  way  in  which  this  is  done  greatly 
affects  the  appearance  and  the  durability  of  the  gloss. 
When  the  body  is  too  thin,  the  gloss  subsequently 
given  to  it  may  at  first  be  beautiful,  but  as  the  polish 
sinks  or  perishes  the  gloss  fades.  When  the  body 
is  too  thick  the  gloss  may  appear  all  right,  but  the 
work  is  apt  to  look  treacly,  as  though  varnish  had  been 
used ;  besides,  a  thick  body  impairs  the  pure  tone  of 
some  woods.  The  high  degree  of  excellence  to  which 
polishing  is  capable  of  being  brought  is  seen  only  on 
the  best  cabinet  work.  Polish  on  second-rate  furniture 
is  generally  in  keeping  with  the  inferior  quality  of  the 
woodwork.  The  cheap  gaudy  furniture  which  is  often 
seen  in  shops  must  not  be  taken  as  models  of  polishing. 
The  price  paid  for  polishing  is  reduced,  with  the  result  that 
inferior  polish  is  used  and  less  time  is  spent  on  the  work. 
Although  the  best  materials  and  the  expenditure  of 
time  and  labour  will  not  ensure  good  work  by  unprac- 
tised hands,  they  are  important  factors,  and  it  will  be 
wise  to  use  materials  of  good  quality. 

To  make  a  good  average  polish,  neither  too  thick  nor 
too  thin,  about  six  ounces  of  shellac  to  each  pint  of 
methylated  spirit  will  be  required,  but  great  exactitude 
in  the  proportions  is  not  necessary.  The  proportions 
may  vary  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  polisher,  and,  to 
some  extent,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  he  is 
engaged  on.  If  the  polish  turns  out  too  thick,  it  can 
be  thinned  by  adding  more  spirit ;  if  too  thin,  the 
deficiency  can  be  made  up  by  adding  more  shellac.  A 
rough-and-ready  way  of  measuring  the  proportions  is 


36  WOOD  FINISHING, 

to  half  fill  a  bottle  with  the  roughly-broken  shellac,  and 
then  fill  up  with  ordinary  methylated  spirit. 

The  shellac  dissolves  gradually,  and  the  process  is 
hastened  by  an  occasional  shaking  or  stirring  with  a 
stick.  Heat  is  not  necessary ;  indeed,  the  preparation 
of  polish  by  heat  is  dangerous. 

Two  kinds  of  polish  are  used.  One,  known  as 
"  white  polish,"  is  nearly  colourless  ;  the  other  is  known 
as  "brown  polish,"  or  simply  "polish."  The  latter  is 
always  understood  if  unqualified  by  the  word  "  white." 
White  polish  is  made  with  white  or  bleached  shellac ; 
the  other  with  ordinary  orange  or  reddish-brown  shellac. 

Either  polish  may  be  used  on  any  kind  of  wood, 
except  where  great  purity  o4  tint  is  required.  The 
white  is  to  be  preferred  for  all  light  woods,  such  as  light 
oak,  ash,  sycamore,  satin,  etc.,  while  the  brown  may  be 
used  on  darker;  but  even  on  these,  white  polish  is 
good,  with  the  exception  of  mahogany,  the  only  ordinary 
furniture  wood  for  which  a  decided  preference  might  be 
given  to  brown  polish.  Under  ordinary  circumstances, 
however,  either  polish  may  be  used  indiscriminately. 
The  point  as  to  brown  or  white  polish  for  dark  wood 
belongs  to  the  higher  branches  of  the  polisher's  art. 

It  will  be  seen  that  white  polish  is  the  more  generally 
useful  of  the  two,  so  those  who  do  not  care  to  keep  both 
kinds  may  confine  themselves  to  it.  Through  the 
slightly  higher  price  of  the  bleached  shellac,  it  costs 
a  little  more,  but  the  extra  cost  is  so  small  that  it  is 
hardly  worth  considering  by  those  who  use  small 
quantities.  Those  who  use  polish  in  large  quantities 
can  have  both  kinds. 

Polish  bought  ready  made  may  be  equal  to  that  made 
at  home  from  the  recipe  given,  for  there  is  nothing  to 
prevent  manufacturers  using  the  same  ingredients,  and 
many  of  them  do.  Still,  from  the  impossibility  of 
knowing  the  ingredients  in  ready-made  polish,  there  is 
some  risk  attending  its  use.  From  the  price  at  which 
some  polish  is  sold,  it  is  fair  to  suppose  that  something 
cheaper  than  spirit  or  shellac  has  been  used ;  and 


BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF.  37 

though  good  polish  may  be  bought,  it  is  better  for  the 
user  to  prepare  his  own,  which  can  be  depended  on. 
Bought  polish  may  be  thoroughly  good  in  every  way 
— brilliant,  clear,  and  durable— but  those  who  are  best 
able  to  judge  generally  prefer  to  make  their  own  polish 
to  do  the  best  class  of  work.  Prejudice  may  account 
for  this  preference. 

Manufacturers  of  polish  assert  that,  in  addition  to 
shellac,  certain  gums  or  resins  improve  the  quality  of 
the  polish,  when  used  with  knowledge  and  discretion 
For  instance,  one  gum  may  give  increased  elasticity, 
while  another  may  harden  the  film;  but  for  a  good 
all-round  polish,  which  can  be  relied  on,  many  polishers 
assert  that  there  is  nothing  to  surpass  a  simple  solution  of 
shellac  and  methylated  spirit.  A  few  approved  formulae 
for  polishes  are  given  at  the  end  of  this  book,  so  that 
those  who  feel  inclined  to  do  so  may  experiment  for 
themselves.  Shellac  is  the  principal  ingredient  in 
nearly  all.  Those  persons  who  cannot  polish  with 
shellac  and  spirit  alone  will  not  be  able  to  do  any 
better  with  the  more  complicated  mixtures ;  therefore, 
no  one  should  remain  under  the  impression  that  he 
will  do  better  if  he  works  with  another  kind  of  polish. 

Enough  having  now  been  said-  about  the  material, 
we  may  proceed  to  the  using  of  it  for  bodying.  In  the 
first  place,  the  wood  must  be  prepared  by  filling  of  one 
kind  or  another,  as  fully  explained  in  Chapter  IV.,  and 
rubbed  down  smoothly  with  fine  or  worn  glass-paper, 
in  order  to  make  it  fit  to  receive  the  polish,  for  a  high 
degree  of  finish  cannot  be  got  on  a  rough  surface. 
The  rubber,  which  consists  of  cotton  wadding  with  a 
soft  rag  cover,  with  which  the  polish  is  applied,  has 
been  sufficiently  treated  on  in  Chapter  III.,  so  that 
nothing  more  need  be  said  about  it.  Work,  rubber, 
polish,  and  a  little  raw  linseed  oil  being  ready,  bodying 
in  may  be  proceeded  with  in  the  following  way  : — 

Moisten  the  wadding  with  polish ;  put  the  rag  cover 
on  carefully,  so  that  it  is  without  folds  or  wrinkles. 
Dab  the  rubber  into  the  palm  of  the  left  hand  to 


38  Woor  FINISHING, 

distribute  the  polish  evenly,  and  cause  it  to  moisten  the 
rag  at  the  bottom  properly.  Supposing  the  work  is 
a  panel  or  flat  surface,  the  following  will  be  found  a 
good  method  of  treating  it,  and  it  is  one  that  is 
followed  more  or  less  closely  by  experienced  polishers  : — 
Rub  briskly  across  the  grain,  to  get  the  surface 
covered  with  polish ;  then  by  a  series  of  circular  move- 
ments, as  shown  by  the  lines  in  Fig.  7,  go  over  the 
whole  of  the  work.  A  moderate  pressure  should  be 
applied,  which  should  be  increased  gradually  as  the 


Fig.  7.— The  Path  of  the  Rubber  in  French  Polishing. 

rubber  dries,  but  the  movement  should  at  no  time 
degenerate  into  mere  scrubbing.  In  order  that  the 
rubber  may  work  smoothly  without  sticking,  a  little 
of  the  raw  linseed  oil  should  be  applied.  The  less  of 
this  used  the  better,  and  if  it  can  be  dispensed  with 
altogether  no  harm  will  be  done.  To  make  the  rubber 
work  smoothly  a  very  little  will  suffice ;  the  tip  of  a 
finger,  moistened  with  oil,  and  touched  on  the  face  of 
the  rubber  is  all  that  is  required.  The  rubber 
must  not  be  dipped  in  the  oil,  nor  must  the  oil 
be  dropped  on  it  from  a  bottle  ;  for  by  these  means 
more  oil  would  be  applied  than  is  necessary,  and  this 
would  prove  fatal  to  good  work. 

The  only  recognised  oil  used  in  French  polishing  is 
rnw  linseed.  This  may  be  worked  over  the  natural  woods 
in  the  first  place,  to  give  them  that  peculiar  tone  that 
cannot  be  gained  by  other  means,  otherwise  the  less  oil 


BODYING  Iff  AND  SPIRITING  OFF.  39 

used  the  better  for  the  durability  of  the  work.  Bear  in 
mind  that  it  forms  no  part  of  polish  in  itself,  being  used 
only  to  enable  us  to  work  the  gums  easily ;  thus,  with- 
out its  aid  the  polish  rubber  would  be  apt  to  stick  or 
drag,  thus  breaking  up  the  surface  instead  of  levelling 
it.  On  any  surface  in  which  spirit  varnish  forms  a  part 
this  will  be  particularly  noticeable ;  and  in  any  case, 
it  is  next  to  impossible  to  get  that  beautiful  level  sur- 
face gained  by  spiriting  out  unless  a  little  oil  is  used. 

As  the  rubber  dries,  more  polish  must  be  applied  to 
it,  as  was  done  in  the  first  instance,  with  more  oil  as 
required.  A  small  quantity  of  polish  goes  a  long  way, 
and  the  novice  must  carefully  avoid  making  the  rubber 
wet.  It  should  be  no  more  than  fairly  moist. 

Many  a  beginner,  noticing  how  tedious  the  work  is 
with  a  dry  rubber,  may  think  that  if  he  used  more 
polish  the  desired  result  would  be  more  quickly  attained. 
If  the  object  were  merely  to  get  the  wood  coated,  this 
might  be  the  case ;  but  the  result  of  using  too  much 
polish  would  be  that  the  shellac  left  by  the  quick 
evaporation  of  the  spirit  would  be  ridgy  and  irregular, 
instead  of  in  a  fine,  even  coating  or  body.  Anything 
approaching  a  flow  of  polish  from  the  rubber  must  be 
avoided.  When  the  rubber  is  not  sufficiently  charged 
with  polish,  the  labour  of  bodying  up  will  be  unduly 
protracted,  or  may  be  rendered  impossible  if  no  polish 
can  be  rubbed  on  to  the  wood. 

The  first  bodying-in  process  should  be  continued  till 
it  seems  that  the  wood  absorbs  no  more  of  the  polish. 
There  will  be  a  perceptible  gloss  on  its  surface,  but  it 
will  be  streaky,  and  the  rubber-marks  will  show  very 
distinctly.  All  these  marks  will  be  removed  later  on. 
It  may  be  thought  that,  if  the  polish  is  too  thick  or  too 
thin,  the  result  will  be  very  much  the  same  as  if  the 
rubber  were  too  wet  or  too  dry.  The  principal  objec- 
tion to  having  the  polish  too  thin  is  that  it  will  take 
more  time  in  working  a  good  body  on  the  wood. 
It  will,  however,  be  better  to  risk  this  rather  than  to 
have  the  polish  too  thick.  An  experienced  polisher 


40  WOOD  FINISHING. 

would  soon  detect  fault  in  either  direction  by  the  way 
in  which  the  polish  works,  but  the  novice  must  be 
on  the  look-out  for  irregularities  in  the  shape  of  lumps 
or  ridges,  and,  with  a  little  attention,  he  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  avoiding  serious  mishaps. 

Let  the  work  stand  for  at  least  a  day,  carefully 
covered  up  from  dust ;  on  examining  it  the  body  will 
be  found  to  have  altered  in  appearance  to  an  extent 
which  will  depend  upon  how  much  the  polish  has  sunk 
into  the  wood.  The  work  must  be  again  bodied  up  as 
before,  always  remembering  to  use  as  little  oil  as  pos- 
sible. Then  it  will  be  again  laid  aside,  and  the  bodying 
process  repeated  till  the  polish  no  longer  seems  to  sink 
in,  even  after  the  work  has  lain  aside  for  a  few  days. 
When  this  stage  is  reached  the  bodying  may  be  con- 
sidered complete,  and  the  work  ready  for  the  first 
polishing  operations.  Before  proceeding  to  consider 
these,  however,  the  novice  will  do  well  to  note  the 
following  hints  : — 

The  number  of  times  the  work  will  require  to  be 
bodied  depends  on  circumstances.  Fine,  close-grained 
woods  will  not  require  so  many  as  the  more  open  kinds, 
such  as  oak,  ash,  mahogany,  etc. ;  but  for  the  best  work, 
which  is  intended  to  be  as  durable  as  can  be,  it  need 
rarely  exceed  four.  An  interval  of  one  or  more  days 
may  elapse  between  the  successive  bodies,  the  chief 
object  of  waiting  being  to  let  them  sink  as  much  as 
they  will.  If,  after  the  work  has  been  laid  aside  for  a 
few  days,  the  polish  has  not  sunk  at  all,  no  advantage 
would  be  gained  by  giving  it  another  body.  It  is  very 
seldom  that  the  first  body  is  enough,  but  often  only  one 
body  is  applied,  where  either  low  price  or  limited  time 
will  not  allow  of  more ;  so  those  who  wish  to  do  polish- 
ing need  not  think  the  process  cannot  be  hurried. 

Still,  imperfect  bodying  is  not  advisable,  as  such 
work  will  soon  want  touching  up.  When  work  is  made 
merely  to  sell,  one  body,  and  that  of  the  slightest,  is 
sufficient — from  the  seller's  point  of  view,  if  not  from 
the  buyer's.  Between  the  bodyings,  especially  after  the 


BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF.  41 

first  and  second,  the  surface  of  the  work  should  be 
rubbed  down  with  fine  glass-paper — not  to  rub  the  body 
off,  but  just  enough  to  smooth  the  surface.  It  may 
here  be  remarked  that  pumice  powder,  used  in  modera- 
tion, is  useful  for  working  down  inequalities  of  surface. 
Glass-papering  has  been  recommended  as  necessary  after 
the  first  and  second  bodies,  but  the  process  may  be 
done  after  any  others,  though  it  should  not  be  required 
if  the  work  has  been  skilfully  done.  In  fact,  the  final 
bodying  up  may  be  regarded  almost  as  the  beginning 
of  the  spiriting  off. 

Before  beginning  to  work  a  fresh  body  on  a  previous 
one,  it  is  as  well  to  wash  the  surface  gently  with' luke- 
warm water,  not  using  too  much  of  it,  in  order  to  remove 
the  grease  and  allow  the  rubber  to  work  freely.  The 
water  must  be  thoroughly  dried  up  before  applying  the 
rubber.  In  moderation  the  washing  can  never  do  harm, 
and  is,  generally,  an  advantage,  though  not  absolutely 
necessary.  When  a  long  interval  has  elapsed,  the  wash- 
ing should  never  be  omitted,  as  dust  will  settle  on  the 
work  ;  and  it  need  scarcely  be  said  that  dust  should  not 
be  rubbed  into  the  polish. 

When  bodying  up,  polishers  should  see  that  their 
hands  are  clean  and  free  from  old  polish,  which  is  so 
often  seen  on  them.  It  they  are  soiled  with  old  polish 
or  shellac,  bits  are  apt  to  flake  off  and  destroy  the 
surface  of  new  work.  This  may  be  an  appropriate 
place  to  say  that  any  polish  which  sticks  to  the  hands 
may  be  washed  away  with  hot  water  and  soda,  or  with 
methylated  spirit. 

The  body  should  be  thin,  as  it  is  not  so  much  the 
quantity  of  body  on  the  wood  as  its  quality  that  is 
important ;  it  is  also  essential  that  it  should  be  applied 
with  sufficient  intervals  between  the  successive  bodies 
to  allow  of  sinkage. 

Another  important  matter  is  to  dry  the  rubbers  well  oy 
working  them  on  each  body  till  dry,  and  not  to  moisten 
them  frequently.  By  this  means  the  film  of  shellac  ia 
kept  thin.  Neither  a  wet  r.or  a  dry  rubber  should  on  any 


42  WOOD  FINISHING. 

account  be  allowed  to  stand  on  a  surface  being  polished. 
The  rubber  must  be  kept  moving,  and  should  glide 
gradually  on  to  the  work,  not  be  dabbed  down  on  it. 
In  the  initial  stages  of  bodying,  care  in  this  respect  ia 
not  so  important  as  later  on,  when  it  is  absolutely 
necessary.  The  same  precaution  should  be  used  when 
lifting  the  rubber  from  the  work. 

For  the  guidance  of  beginners,  it  may  be  stated 
that  if  they  take  care  of  the  edges  of  the  work  the 
rest  of  the  surface  will  look  after  itself.  The  reason  is 
that  the  edges  are  apt  to  be  somewhat  neglected,  and 
the  polish  to  be  less  there  than  elsewhere.  The  secret 
of  a  good  durable  polish  depends  primarily  on  a  good 
body,  and  this,  in  its  turn,  on  sufficient  time  having  been 
allowed  for  sinkage. 

The  final  operation  in  French  polishing,  by  which 
the  gloss  is  put  on  the  body  previously  applied, 
is  known  as  spiriting  off.  In  this  operation  rubber 
marks  and  smears  of  all  kinds  are  removed,  and  the 
beautiful  surface,  known  as  French  polish,  is  the  result. 
Bodying  is  important  so  far  as  durability  is  concerned, 
but  spiriting  is  more  so  with  regard  to  finish.  If  the 
worker  fails  in  spiriting,  his  previous  efforts  will,  to  a 
great  extent,  have  been  in  vain.  Disregarding  staining, 
darkening,  and  other  processes,  with  which  a  good 
polisher  should  be  acquainted,  the  spiriting  is  perhaps 
the  most  severe  test  of  skill  in  the  whole  process  of 
polishing;  and  a  man  who  can  manage  this  part  of 
the  work  really  well  may  be  considered  a  competent 
polisher. 

The  first  operation  to  be  described  in  the  process 
of  spiriting  off  partakes  very  much  of  the  nature  of 
bodying  in.  At  the  beginning  it  is  bodying,  and  at  the 
end  spiriting.  The  two  processes  merge  one  into  the 
other.  There  is  no  abrupt  break,  as  between  filling 
and  bodying,  except  for  the  intermediate  stage,  al- 
though the  processes  are  well  defined,  both  in  character 
and  purpose.  This  intermediate  stage  is  not  always 
practised,  but  it  is  recommended  when  good  work  is 


BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF.  43 

wanted.  Briefly,  spiriting  off  consists  in  washing  the 
bodied  surface  with  methylated  spirit.  This  being  under- 
stood, the  final  bodying  up,  or  first  spiriting  off,  which- 
ever this  process  may  be  called,  consists  in  gradually 
\  educing  the  quantity  of  polish  in  the  rubber,  and 
supplying  its  place  with  spirit.  The  polish  is  gradually 
reduced  by  the  addition  of  spirit  till  all  the  polish  has 
been  worked  out  of  the  rubber.  The  rubber  may  be 
charged,  first  with  three  parts  polish  and  one  part 
spirit ;  next  time  equal  quantities  ;  the  third  time  three 
parts  spirit  and  one  part  polish  ;  and  the  fourth  charg- 
ing will  be  with  spirit  only.  It  does  not  follow  that 
these  proportions  need  be  strictly  observed,  nor  are  they 
so  in  practice,  but  this  example  illustrates  the  process. 
The  last  rubber  will  be  almost  free  from  polish,  and  it 
should  be  worked  till  it  is  dry,  or  nearly  so. 

At  this  stage  spiriting  proper  may  begin,  and  a  fresh 
rubber  should  be  used.  It  need  not  be  a  new  one,  but 
it  should  be  one  which  has  been  used  only  for  spiriting, 
and  which  has  no  polish  on  it.  It  will  be  better  if  it 
has  three  or  four  coverings  of  rag  on  its  face,  which  can 
be  removed  as  they  dry.  If  only  one  cover  is  used  the 
spirit  is  apt  to  evaporate  too  quickly.  The  spirit  in  the 
rubber  has  a  tendency  to  partially  dissolve  the  shellac 
or  body  on  the  wood.  This  it  does  to  a  very  limited 
extent,  unless  the  rubber  is  made  too  wet,  when  there 
is  danger  of  not  only  spiriting  and  smoothing  the 
surface,  but  of  actually  washing  away  the  body.  This 
mishap  must  be  carefully  guarded  against.  There  should 
be  enough  spirit  to  allow  the  surface  of  the  body  to  be 
softened  and  smoothed,  but  no  more,  and  the  rubbing 
should  be  uniform,  and  not  more  in  one  place  than  in 
another.  There  is  hardly  any  likelihood  of  the  novice 
erring  by  using  too  little  spirit,  so  he  may  be  reminded  that 
the  less  of  it  there  is  in  the  rubber  at  a  time  the  better. 
The  rubbing  should  be  gentle  at  first,  becoming  harder 
as  the  spirit  dries  off,  and  oil  must  not  be  used  on  the 
rubber  face,  for  when  there  is  oil  either  on  the  rubber 
or  on  the  work,  the  polish  cannot  be  brought  up. 


44  WOOD  FINISHING. 

The  chief  cause  of  failure  lies  in  getting  the  spirit- 
rubber  too  wet,  and  so  softening  and  tearing  up  the 
gums.  Many  meet  with  success  by  dispensing  with 
it,  using  instead  a  swab  of  clean,  soft  rag,  fairly  damp 
(not  wet)  with  methylated  spirit. 

If  the  spiriting- off  process  is  being  done  cuirectly 
the  gloss  will  soon  begin  to  appear,  and  when  it  seems 
approaching  a  finished  condition,  the  rubber  ought  to 
be  moved  only  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  and  not 
across  it  nor  with  circular  motion.  The  final  touches 
should  be  given  with  the  soft  rubber  rag  alone,  care 
being  taken  not  to  scratch  the  surface,  which  is  now 
softened  by  the  action  of  the  spirit.  The  surface  will 
gradually  harden,  but  for  a  time  it  should  be  handled 
with  care,  and  nothing  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact 
with  it,  or  it  is  very  likely  to  be  marked.  It  should 
also  be  protected  from  dust,  for  any  settling  on  it  may 
be  retained  by  the  polish,  the  lustre  of  which  would 
certainly  suffer. 

Cabinet-makers,  and  perhaps  dealers  in  furniture, 
who  do  not  keep  an  experienced  polisher,  or  who  may  not 
be  able  to  get  their  work  done  out,  may  be  reminded 
that,  circumstances  permitting,  polished  furniture  should 
be  wiped  over  with  a  spirit-rubber  an  hour  or  two  before 
it'is  sent  home,  to  freshen  it  up.  If  the  surface  is  at  all 
soft,  neither  packing  mats,  nor  anything  else  likely  to 
injure  it,  should  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  it. 
The  polishing  on  many  things  sent  long  journeys  is 
often  greatly  disfigured  from  mat  and  other  markings, 
but  they  are  easily  touched  up  on  arrival  at  their 
destination. 


45 


CHAPTER    VI. 

GLAZING  AND  WAX  FINISHING. 

GLAZING,  though  an  imitation,  has  a  recognised  accept- 
ance among  polishers.  It  is  remarkably  convenient 
occasionally,  and  in  some  cases  possesses  an  advantage 
over  spiriting,  so  that  it  may  fairly  be  classed  among 
the  ordinary  processes  of  polishing.  When  done  in 
moderation,  glazing  is  as  useful  on  furniture  carving  as 
the  application  of  spirit  varnish.  Such  work  is  com- 
monly said,  and  justly,  to  be  French  polished.  The  real 
objection  to  glaze  finish  is  that,  though  at  first  the 
appearance  is  equal,  it  is  not  so  durable  as  the  other. 
Glaze  may  be  said  to  be  even  superior  to  badly-spirited 
finish,  and  here  is  the  chief  claim  it  has  for  notice.  It 
is  seldom  that  a  casual  polisher  can  manage  to  do 
spiriting  thoroughly,  for  the  reason  that  he  has  not 
sufficient  opportunity  of  acquiring  practice. 

Nevertheless,  finishing  by  means  of  glaze  is  not  so 
good  as  the  method  by  spiriting,  when  the  latter  is  well 
done,  and  should  be  considered  as  a  means  of  getting 
the  same  effect  easily  and  quickly— an  imitation,  in  fact, 
of  the  real  thing ;  the  difference  between  the  spirit  and 
glaze  finishes  is  that  in  the  one  case  the  effect  is  produced 
by  friction,  in  the  other  by  the  addition  of  a  thin  fine 
varnish  to  the  surface  of  the  body  of  polish.  In  the 
former  case  the  polish  itself  is  polished  ;  in  the  latter  it 
is  varnished  with  a  mixture  known  commonly  as  glaze, 
but  to  which  other  names  are  sometimes  given. 

Among  polishers  who  command  a  fair  price  for  their 
work,  glaze  is  of  comparatively  limited  application,  and 
is  confined  to  those  parts  where  the  spirit-rubber  cannot 
be  conveniently  used,  or  where  its  use  is  not  necessary. 
Instances  of  such  may  be  found  in  chair-rails  and 
various  parts  of  the  frame.  These  are  usually  polished, 


46  WOOD  FINISHING. 

more  or  less,  before  the  chair  is  upholstered,  or,  at  any  rate, 
before  the  outer  covering  is  put  on,  the  finishing  being 
almost  necessarily  done  last  of  all.  The  less  the  chair 
is  handled  by  the  polisher  the  better,  especially  if  tho 
covering  is  a  delicate  one,  for  there  is  less  risk  of  injury 
with  one  or  two  wipes  over  with  the  glaze  rubber  than 
with  the  more  prolonged  spiriting. 

Glaze  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  inlaid  work, 
where  the  inlay  is  slightly,  though  perhaps  not  in- 
tentionally, higher  than  the  surrounding  wood.  In 
such  a  case  it  is  better  to  resort  to  glaze  than  to  finish 
with  the  spirit  rubber.  On  fretwork,  also,  glaze  may 
often  be  used  with  advantage,  and,  generally,  it  ia 
unobjectionable  on  parts  which  are  not  subject  to  wear 
and  tear.  It  will  stand  a  moderate  amount  of  handling, 
but  not  so  much  as  good  hard  spirited-off  polish,  and 
the  lustre  is  not  so  durable. 

Glaze,  under  one  or  other  of  its  different  names,  may 
be  bought  ready  made,  but  for  reasons  similar  to  those 
given  in  connection  with  French  polish,  the  home-made 
article  is  to  be  recommended.  The  preparation  of  glaze 
is  simple,  the  ingredients  being  gum  benzoin  and 
methylated  spirit.  After  the  benzoin  is  dissolved,  the 
solution  should  be  strained  through  muslin  to  free  it 
from  foreign  matter.  The  proportions  may  vary,  but 
those  given  for  polish  do  very  well,  and  with  the 
substitution  of  crushed  benzoin  for  shellac  the  process 
of  making  is  exactly  the  same. 

Gum  benzoin  differs  greatly  in  quality,  but  the  best 
should  be  used  by  the  polisher.  Compared  with  lac  it 
is  expensive,  so  that  the  saving  which  is  attributed  to 
its  use  is  mainly  in  time,  which  is  money,  at  least  from  a 
trade  point  of  view.  Cheap  benzoin  is  not  to  be  relied 
on,  and  in  a  strange  place  an  experienced  polisher  would 
look  with  suspicion  on  any  offered  at  a  very  low  price, 
however  satisfactory  its  appearance.  Where  Jnaterial 
is  liable  to  adulteration,  the  best  way  to  avoid  imposi- 
tion is  to  go  to  a  reliable  dealer  and  to  pay  a  fair  price. 

Glaze,  as  used  by  French  polishers,  can  be  bought 


GLAZING  AND  WAX  FINISHING.  47 

\ 

ready  made  at  most  drysaltery  stores,  as  patent  glaze, 
at  from  8s.  to  16s.  per  gallon,  according  to  quality  and 
age;  it  improves  with  age.  To  make  the  genuine 
article,  dissolve  6  or  8  ounces  of  best  gum  benzoin  (cost- 
ing 2s.  6d.  per  pound)  in  1  pint  of  methylated  spirit. 
Keep  it  in  a  closely  stoppered  bottle,  otherwise  the  spirit 
will  evaporate  quickly. 

Glaze  may  be  applied  with  either  rubber,  sponge,  or 
brush ;  in  most  cases  the  rubber  is  most  suitable  and 
is  most  commonly  used.  It  is  made  in  the  ordinary  way 
as  used  for  polish,  described  on  pp.  21—25,  but  it  must 
not  be  applied  with  pressure.  The  glaze  is  painted  on 
rather  than  rubbed  into  the  work,  which  must  have 
been  previously  bodied  in.  There  seems  to  be  an  idea 
that  glaze  or  something-  put  on  bare  wood  will  cause 
a  gloss  right  off;  but  nothing  will  do  this.  A  polish  can 
only  be  got  on  wood  by  varnish,  or  by  bodying  in  and 
polish. 

When  using  glaze,  the  rubber  should  be  made  wetter 
than  for  polish  or  spirit ;  but  still  there  should  not  be 
sufficient  to  drip  from  it.  It  should  glaze  or  wet  the 
wood  when  the  rubber  is  very  lightly  pressed  on  it. 
One  or  two  wipes  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  with  a  somewhat  quick  motion,  will  put  the 
glaze  on.  Always  let  the  glaze  dry  before  applying  the 
rubber  again  to  the  same  place.  The  coats  may  be 
repeated  till  the  gloss  is  satisfactory,  but  the  film  of 
glaze  should  never  be  made  a  thick  one. 

If  preferred,  a  sponge  may  be  used  exactly  as  a 
rubber  would  be,  but  it  is  questionable  if  there  is  any 
advantage  gained ;  it  is  rather  a  matter  of  fancy.  When 
a  brush  is  used,  the  glaze  may  be  applied  as  a  varnish 
pure  and  simple.  With  a  brush  a  mixture  of  glaze  and 
French  polish,  either  white  or  brown,  according  to  the 
work,  in  equal  quantities,  may  be  used  with  advantage. 

Glaze  that  is  not  so  satisfactory  in  appearance  as  it 
should  be,  may  sometimes  be  improved  by  passing  a 
spirit-rubber  lightly  over  it,  though  this  should  be  done 
with  great  caution,  to  avoid  washing  it  off.  When 


48  WOOD  FINISHING. 

carefully  and  skilfully  done,  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  a  glazed  surface  may  be  often,  if  not  always  im- 
proved by  slightly  spiriting  it. 

To  glaze  a  wide  surface,  see  that  it  is  free  from  dull 
streaks  and  ridges  and  oil,  and  the  rubber  soft  and 
free  from  fluff.  Apply  the  glaze  as  evenly  as  possible, 
going  over  the  surface  several  times,  until  the  rubber 
is  nearly  dry ;  then,  with  the  smallest  quantity  of  oil 
and  a  little  spirits,  go  over  the  glaze,  very  lightly 
at  first,  varying  the  direction  of  the  rubber  to  avoid 
ridges.  A  dull,  even  surface  may  be  obtained  by  adding 
one-third  to  one-half  of  sandarach  to  the  solution  of 
benzoin,  and  using  the  rubber  only  damp — not  saturated. 

Old  French  polished  work  may  often  be  revived  by 
being  lightly  gone  over  with  glaze  after  the  surface  has 
been  washed  and  cleaned  with  warm  water.  This  treat- 
ment is  often  considerably  better  than  that  commonly 
adopted  with  furniture  pastes,  polishes,  creams,  and 
revivers  of  various  kinds. 

Although  the  beauty  of  most  furniture  woods  is 
enhanced  to  the  highest  degree  by  French  polishing 
when  well  done,  there  are  other  processes  which,  though 
not  capable  of  being  brought  to  such  perfection,  are 
much  simpler.  Among  these  is  wax  polishing.  This 
mode  of  finishing  is  remarkably  easy,  both  as  regards 
materials  and  manipulation,  and  the  unskilled  novice 
can  manage  to  wax  polish  almost  as  well  as  an  expert 
It  is,  therefore,  a  suitable  process  for  the  beginner. 

Though  any  wood  may  be  treated  by  waxing,  it  is 
generally  confined  to  oak,  especially  after  this  has  been 
darkened  by  fumigation  with  ammonia — which  process 
is  explained  on  p.  12.  The  appearance  of  oak  so 
finished  is  comparatively  dull,  but  it  has  an  attractive- 
ness, whrch  French  polish  does  not  possess  for  all 
eyes. 

For  antique  oak  furniture— whether  genuine  or  imi- 
tation— wax  is  the  best  finish,  though  varnish  is  often 
used.  Wax  polish,  though  it  may  not  give  the  same 
amount  of  gloss,  is  clearer  and  finer.  Varnish  clogs  the 


GLAZING  AND   WAX  FINISHING.  49 

wood,  and  is  apt  to  give  a  treacly  look  to  any  piece  of 
furniture  finished  with  it. 

Mahogany  may  very  appropriately  be  finished  by 
wax  polish,  and  for  many  purposes  it  may  be  superior 
to  the  dulled  French  polish  so  often  seen.  The  top  of  a 
dining-table  is  apt  to  be  rendered  unsightly  from  hot 
plates  or  dishes  injuring  the  polished  surfaces.  The  heat 
burns  or  blisters  the  hardened  shellac  of  the  French 
polish,  and  a  finish  which  is  not  so  liable  to  disfigurement 
is  preferable  ;  this  is  found  in  wax  polish.  Usually, 
dining-table  tops  (unless  French  polished)  are  simply  oil 
polished.  Waxing  is,  however,  less  tedious,  and  at  least 
as  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and  the  readiness  with  which 
an  accidental  marking  can  be  obliterated  renders  it 
particularly  useful. 

Wood  stained  black,  to  produce  so-called  ebony,  may 
be  wax  polished.  The  result  is  certainly  a  closer 
approximation  to  the  appearance  of  real  ebony  than 
when  the  work  is  French  polished  in  the  usual  way. 
By  polishing  fretwork  articles  with  wax  they  may  easily 
be  made  to  look  better  than  many  of  them  do  when 
unskilfully  French  polished. 

Though  it  has  been  said  that  any  wood  may  be  wax 
polished,  there  can  be  no  question  that  this  process 
answers  best  on  the  more  coarsely-grained  woods,  such 
as  oak  and  ash ;  for  pine  and  other  light  woods  of  close 
texture  it  is  not  so  well  suited,  unless  they  have  been 
previously  stained. 

The  ingredients  for  wax  polish  are,  in  the  simplest 
mixture,  beeswax  and  turpentine.  Resin  and  Venice 
turpentine  are  occasionally  added.  Resin  is  added 
with  the  intention  of  hardening  the  surface;  but 
provided  the  wax  be  of  good  quality,  these  additions 
are  quite  unnecessary,  if  not  injurious,  and  a  good 
result  should  be  got  from  wax  and  turps. 

Wax  and  turpentine  alone  are  all  the  materials 
necessary  to  make  a  good  wax  polish,  and  when  any- 
thing else  enters  into  the  composition  the  mixture  is  one 
of  a  fancy  character.  It  is  not  proposed  to  discuss  the 

D 


50  WOOD  FINISHING. 

qualities  of  beeswax  offered  for  sale,  and  the  polisher 
must  decide  what  kind  he  gets.  Some  advocate  the  use 
of  fine  white  wax,  and  possibly  a  better  finish  may 
sometimes  be  got  with  it  than  with  the  ordinary  yellow 
wax,  which,  however,  is  the  kind  generally  used; 
the  only  occasions  when  it  might  not  be  so  good  as  the 
white  are  when  extreme  purity  of  tone  is  required 
for  a  light  wood.  Wood  perfectly  white  is,  however, 
seldom  wax  polished. 

The  way  in  which  wax  polish  is  prepared  depends 
a  good  deal  on  the  proportions  of  the  materials.  For  a 
liquid  polish,  shred  the  wax  finely,  and  pour  the  turpen- 
tine over  it,  leaving  the  two  till  they  are  incorporated. 
Cold  turpentine  will  dissolve  wax  slowly,  but  a  more 
expeditious  method  is  to  melt  the  wax  by  heat,  and 
before  it  has  time  to  solidify  pour  the  turpentine  into  it. 
Caution  is  necessary  when  melting  wax,  and  on  no 
account  should  the  turpentine  be  poured  into  the  wax 
while  it  is  still  on  the  fire.  With  ordinary  care  there  is 
no  danger,  and  the  possibility  of  a  mishap  is  suggested 
merely  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  might  otherwise 
overlook  the  inflammable  character  of  turpentine  vapour. 
Should  the  mixture  be  either  too  thick  or  too  thin,  there 
will  be  no  trouble  in  altering  its  consistency  afterwards. 
To  thin  a  mass  which  is  too  stiff,  a  very  moderate 
warming,  by  placing  the  bottle  in  hot  water,  will  reduce 
it  to  a  more  liquid  form,  as  the  turpentine  already  in  it 
facilitates  the  change,  and  more  turpentine  is  added. 
To  stiffen  the  mixture,  wax  should  be  melted  separately, 
and  the  original  mixture  added  to  it.  The  heat  of  the 
freshly-melted  wax  will  probably  be  sufficient  to  cause 
all  the  materials  to  mix.  In  any  case,  the  wax  should 
be  thoroughly  melted  before  the  turpentine  is  added,  as 
a  lumpy  mixture  is  neither  pleasant  to  work  with  nor 
conducive  to  good  finish.  The  natural  tendency  of  a 
wax  polishing  mixture,  exposed  to  the  air,  is  to  stiffen, 
on  account  of  the  evaporation  of  the  turpentine.  A 
considerable  time  must  elapse  before  there  is  an  appre- 
ciable alteration,  and  the  fact  that  a  change  does  go  on, 


GLAZING  AND   WAX  FINISHING.  51 

slowly,  is  mentioned  to  remind  polishers  that  if  they 
have  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  mixture  standing 
over,  they  must  not  expect  it  to  retain  its  original  con- 
sistency unless  kept  in  a  closed  vessel,  such  as  a  tightly 
corked  bottle. 

A  hint  for  those  who  think  that  the  more  ingre- 
dients a  mixture  contains  the  better  it  must  be,  and  who 
are  not  satisfied  unless  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  resin 
in  their  wax  polishing  paste  :  always  melt  the  resin  first, 
and  add  the  wax  gradually,  and  constantly  stir.  Whether 
resin  be  used  or  not,  the  mixture  should  be  allowed  to 
get  quite  cold  before  it  is  applied  to  the  work. 

Although  the  consistency  of  wax  polish  varies  con- 
siderably, the  comparative  merits  of  different  degrees 
of  stiffness  or  fluidity  must  be  considered,  so  that  an 
intelligent  conception  of  the  polisher's  aim  may  be 
arrived  at.  Suppose  a  piece  of  beeswax,  without  any  ad- 
mixture of  turpentine,  is  rubbed  on  a  piece  of  smooth,  flat 
wood.  Some  of  the  wax  adheres  to  the  surface,  which 
when  friction  is  applied,  becomes  glossy  or  polished. 
The  labour,  however,  is  considerable,  and  though  dry 
wax  may  do  on  a  flat  surface,  when  mouldings  or 
carvings  are  to  be  treated,  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
satisfactory  application  are  considerable.  The  remedy 
is  to  soften  the  wax  so  that  it  may  be  got  into  all  parts 
of  the  work.  Melted  wax  might  do,  but  in  putting  it 
on  to  the  wood  it  becomes  cold,  and  consequently 
reverts  to  its  original  stiffness.  We  have  then  to  get 
the  wax  to  a  fair  working  consistency  by  means  of  some 
suitable  solvent,  which  turpentine  has  proved  to  be.  It 
is  cleanly,  inexpensive,  and  evaporates  sufficiently 
quickly,  besides  mixing  well  with  the  wax.  Some 
polishers  prefer  what  others  might  think  an  excess  of 
turpentine.  When  a  stiff  paste  is  used,  the  wax  is  apt 
to  be  deposited  in  excessive  quantity,  necessitating  a 
considerable  amount  of  rubbing,  in  places  to  remove  it. 
A  fluid  polish  spreads  the  wax  much  more  evenly,  but 
no  gloss  can  be  obtained  till  the  turpentine  has  dis- 
appeared, either  evaporated  or  been  absorbed  by  the  wood. 


52  WOOD  FINISHING. 

When  the  polish  has  been  laid  evenly  over  the  work, 
this  does  not  take  long,  so  a  thin  mixture  may  be  con- 
sidered preferable  to  a  very  stiff  one.  A  paste  of  about 
the  consistency  of  butter  in  hot  weather,  might  be 
regarded  as  a  medium.  Those  who  use  a  wax  polish 
which  could  be  poured  would  consider  this  stiff,  whilo 
others  who  add  very  little  turpentine,  or  who  believe  in 
resin,  would  consider  it  thin.  A  thick  mixture  or  a 
thin  one  may  be  used,  the  result  depending  more  on 
the  manipulation  of  the  material  than  on  the  material 
itself ;  and  this  manipulation  may  next  be  considered. 

In  the  application  of  wax  polish  there  is  almost  as 
great  a  variety  in  practice  as  in  proportion  of  ingredients. 
The  great  thing  is  to  have  the  wax— the  turpentine  is 
merely  the  vehicle  for  conveying  this — evenly  and  thinly 
distributed,  and  so  long  as  this  is  done  it  is  of  small 
consequence  how  it  is  managed.  To  spread  the  wax 
with,  some  use  a  piece  of  rag,  while  others  prefer  a 
stiff  brush  specially  made  for  the  purpose,  and  both  get 
equally  good  results.  After  the  wax  has  been  spread  the 
polish  is  obtained  by  friction,  and  the  more  you  rub 
the  brighter  the  polish  will  be.  The  brush  or  cloth  used 
to  rub  the  wax  into  the  wood  should  not  be  employed 
to  give  the  finishing  touches.  In  this  final  friction 
it  is  essential  that  the  cloth  or  brush  used  be  perfectly 
dry,  as  if  it  is  at  all  damp  no  polished  surface  can 
be  produced.  The  final  polish  is  best  done  with  a 
perfectly  clean  rubber,  and  three  sets  of  cloths  or  rubbers 
may  be  used.  With  the  first  the  mixture  is  to  be 
rubbed  on  the  wood,  with  the  second  it  is  to  be  rubbed 
off  till  a  fair  amount  of  polish  is  got,  while  with  the 
third  the  rubbing  should  be  continued  till  the  surface  is 
as  bright  as  it  can  be  got. 

The  directions  which  have  been  given  should  enable 
any  one  to  wax-polish  wood  successfully.  Hard  dry 
rubbing,  with  energetic  application  is  at  least  as 
important  as  the  wax  and  turpentine ;  for  though 
more  simple  than  the  French  polishing  process,  it  ig 
more  laborious. 


CHAPTER   VIL 

OIL  POLISHING  AND  DRY  SHINING. 

THE  simple  process  of  oil  polishing  must  now  receive 
attention ;  and  there  is  still  something  to  admire  in  a 
comparatively  dull  oiled  surface.  The  process  simply 
consists  of  rubbing  in  linseed  oil  and  polishing  with  a 
soft  rag.  The  oiling  and  polishing  must  be  continued  at 
intervals  till  the  requisite  shine  is  obtained.  To  get  the 
best  results  takes  time  and  friction.  Oil  polishing  is 
not  difficult,  but  it  is  decidedly  fatiguing  and  tedious. 
The  more  the  surface  is  rubbed  the  better,  and  the 
process  may  be  extended  over  some  weeks.  Patience 
and  energetic  application  are  still  more  essential  than 
with  wax  polishing,  for  to  get  even  the  semblance  of  a 
polish  or  gloss  within  a  week  or  two  with  the  aid  of  oil 
must  not  be  expected.  How  long  does  it  take  to  finish  a 
thing  properly  with  oil?  It  may  be  said  the  work  is 
never  finished.  An  oiled  surface  will  always  bear  more 
rubbing  than  it  has  had,  and  will  not  be  deteriorated  by 
friction ;  still  from  one  to  two  months  should  suffice  to 
get  a  good  polish  which  will  be  durable  according  to  the 
amount  of  labour  bestowed  upon  it  during  that  time. 
This  is  more  time  than  can  be  devoted  to  the  finishing 
touches  of  a  piece  of  furniture  generally  nowadays,  so  it 
may  almost  be  considered  that  oil  polishing  is  an  obsolete 
process. 

Still,  it  does  not  follow  that  because  the  process  is 
too  long  to  be  remunerative  in  ordinary  work  it  should 
not  be  worthy  of  attention,  especially  as  it  has  merits 
which  recommend  it  where  speed  is  not  a  primary 
consideration.  One  great  advantage  of  it  is  that  it  is 
much  more  durable  than  either  French  or  wax  polishes  ; 
it  does  not  blister  by  heat  like  the  former,  nor  spoil  with 
water  to  such  an  extent  as  the  latter,  with  which  in  genera] 


54  WOOD  FINIS HJifG. 

appearance  it  may  be  compared.  It  is  because  it  does 
not  blister  by  heat  that  it  is  especially  useful.  An 
ordinary  French  polished  dining-table  top  shows  the 
damage  caused  by  hot  dishes  laid  on  it,  unless  great 
care  has  been  taken.  On  an  oil  polished  dining-table 
top  the  same  hot  dishes  might  be  placed  almost  with 
impunity ;  and  it  is  chiefly  dining-table  tops  that  have 
prevented  oil  polishing  becoming  quite  extinct.  Though 
the  whole  of  a  table,  or  anything  else,  may  be  polished 
with  oil,  it  is  usual,  even  when  the  top  is  oiled,  to  polish 
the  legs  and  frame  otherwise. 

Linseed  oil  is  the  only  material  used  in  pure  oil 
polishing,  but  other  ingredients  have  been  used,  till  it  is 
difficult  to  recognise  the  distinction  between  oil  polish- 
ing and  French  polishing.  The  two  processes  may 
overlap  to  an  almost  indefinite  extent,  but  with  these  we 
have,  at  present  at  any  rate,  nothing  to  do,  and  to 
discuss  them  might  only  tend  to  confuse  the  novice. 
Authorities  differ  on  the  state  in  which  the  linseed  oil 
should  be  used,  some  recommending  boiled,  others  raw, 
and  others  various  proportions  of  the  two.  For  ordinary 
work  boiled  linseed  oil  is  perhaps  the  better,  but  this  is 
not  intended  to  imply  that  those  who  prefer  raw  oil  are 
wrong  ;  therefore  any  oil  polisher  who  has  an  inclination 
for  some  fancy  mixture  of  boiled  and  raw  oils  can  use  it. 

The  treatment  is  very  much  the  same  as  in  wax 
polishing.  It  consists  in  rubbing  the  oil  well  into  the 
wood,  not  saturating  or  flooding,  but  scrubbing  it,  and 
then  rubbing  long  and  hard.  The  process  may  be 
repeated  almost  indefinitely,  daily  or  at  longer  intervals, 
till  a  polish  which  is  deemed  sufficient  appears.  For 
example,  take  a  table  top,  rub  some  oil  well  into  it, 
and  then  polish  with  a  rubber  formed  by  wrapping  some 
baize,  felt,  or  similar  material  round  a  brick  or  other 
suitable  block,  the  purpose  of  which  is,  by  its  weight,  to 
some  extent  to  relieve  the  polisher  from  using  his 
muscles  in  applying  pressure.  The  rubbing  should 
be  continued  till  the  surface  of  the  wood  is  dry.  The 
only  perceptible  difference  in  the  top  will  be  the 


OIL  POLISHING  AND  DRY  SHINING.         55 

darkened  appearance  caused  by  the  oil,  as  little  or  no 
gloss  will  appear  at  first.  By  repeating  the  operation, 
however,  a  polish  will  come  up  gradually,  and  a  surface 
which  in  the  opinion  of  many  is  superior  to  that  of 
French  polish  will  be  the  ultimate  result.  Should  the 
polish  sweat,  some  methylated  spirit  may  be  rubbed  in. 
This  will  dry  the  surface  without  spoiling  the  polish. 

Oil  polishing  is  hardly  suitable  for  anything  but 
plain  work,  on  account  of  the  labour  required ;  but  any 
piece  of  work  can  be  so  polished  if  the  necessary  time 
and  labour  be  given  to  it.  Even  when  it  is  not  deemed 
practicable  to  bring  up  a  polish  with  oil,  a  very  pleasing 
finish  may  be  given  to  a  piece  of  work  by  merely 
rubbing  it  with  oil.  The  colour  is  enriched  to  an  extent 
which  perhaps  would  hardly  be  credited  by  those  who 
have  not  had  frequent  opportunities  of  seeing  wood  in 
the  white  and  again  after  being  oiled.  In  choice 
mahogany  especially  the  improvement  is  very  marked. 
Light  oak  is  also  greatly  improved  in  tone.  Fret- 
workers  who  are  not  proficient  in  French  polishing 
would  be  more  satisfied  with  the  appearance  of 
anything  they  make  if  they  simply  oiled  it  instead  of 
coating  it  with  shellac,  which  has  to  serve  for  French 
polish. 

Dry-shining  will  be  found  a  simple  process  after  the 
ordinary  methods  of  French  polishing  have  been  mastered. 
Finishing  work  by  dry-shining  is  the  crudest  and 
simplest  way  in  which  a  gloss  can  be  got  on  the  surface 
of  wood  by  means  of  a  thin  varnish  of  shellac  and 
methylated  spirit.  It  must  not  be  mistaken  for  varnish- 
ing, as  this  process  is  ordinarily  understood,  for  it  is 
distinctly  a  process  of  French  polishing.  Even  those 
who  have  managed  to  do  bodying-up  and  spiriting-off, 
or  even  glazing,  will  find  the  operation  of  dry- shining 
simple  in  comparison.  It  is  the  nearest  approach  to 
varnishing  by  means  of  a  rubber,  instead  of  a  brush,  that 
polishers  practise.  The  wood  is  varnished  with  ordinary 
French  polish,  applied  by  means  of  the  polisher's  special 
appliance — the  rubber. 


56  WOOD 

Dry-shining,  unlike  glazing,  is  not  in  any  degree  a 
substitute  for  the  difficult  process  of  spiriting-off,  and 
those  who  think  to  get  a  high  degree  of  finish  on  their 
work  by  means  of  dry-shining  may  give  up  the  illusion. 
When  a  really  good  finish  is  wanted,  French  polishing, 
as  it  is  ordinarily  understood,  should  be  chosen,  for 
there  is  no  efficient  substitute  by  which  a  like  result  can 
be  got. 

Dry-shining  can  be  used  in  any  position  where  a 
high  degree  of  finish  is  not  necessary  or  customary.  It 
is  useful  for  finishing  inside  work — such  as  the  insides 
of  boxes,  drawers,  cabinets,  and  interior  parts  generally 
— and  is  often  seen  on  the  fronts  of  drawers  and  trays 
enclosed  in  a  wardrobe.  The  chief  advantages  in  con- 
nection with  it  are  that  it  can  be  done  expeditiously, 
and  therefore  cheaply  ;  that  it  sufficiently  closes  the 
grain  of  the  wood  to  prevent  dust  getting  in  and  clogging 
it ;  and  that  it  gives  a  certain  degree  of  finish  which 
wood,  left  in  the  white  or  altogether  unpolished,  does 
not  possess. 

The  wood  is  bodied-in  without  any  preparatory 
filling,  but  otherwise  precisely  in  the  manner  directed  in 
Chapter  IV.  It  is  not  customary  to  take  such  precautions 
to  get  up  a  good  body  as  there  recommended.  A  better 
description  of  the  process  is  to  say  that  the  wood  is 
wiped  over  with  the  polish  rubber  ;  not  much  trouble 
is  usually  taken  to  do  more  than  get  the  preliminary 
body  worked  on.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  first  body 
should  not  be  allowed  to  sink,  and  the  article  then  be 
re-bodied  if  necessary.  Much  bodying-in  would  make 
the  work  almost  as  hard  as  that  involved  in  ordinary 
French  polishing,  so  that  ordinarily  the  bodying  in 
dry-shining  is  done  more  quickly. 

When  the  bodying-in  has  been  done  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  polisher,  the  rubber  is  charged  with 
French  polish,  rather  more  fully  than  was  recommended 
for  bodying.  Instead  of  being  rubbed  all  over  the  wood 
in  any  direction,  it  is  wiped  over  in  the  direction  of 
the  grain  from  end  to  end  of  the  piece,  very  much 


OIL  POLISHING  AND  DRY  SHINING.         57 

in  the  manner  mentioned  in  connection  with  glazing. 
The  rubber  may  be  moved  backwards  and  forwards 
till  dry,  but  a  better  way  under  ordinary  circumstances 
is  to  let  the  polish  deposited  by  each  rub  dry  before 
going  over  the  same  place  again.  When  using  the 
rubber  in  finishing,  it  should  have  no  oil ;  and  if  the 
former  of  these  two  methods  is  adopted  it  will  be 
difficult  to  prevent  the  polish  dragging,  so  the  easier 
course  should  be  adopted. 


CHAPTER   VIIL 

REPOLISHING    AND    REVIVING. 

HAVING  once  mastered  the  fundamental  principle  of 
polishing,  as  explained  in  Chap.  III.,  it  is  a  compara- 
tively easy  task  to  give  to  a  plain  piece  of  wood  a  level 
and  lustrous  surface  ;  and  by  the  use  of  stains  that  can 
be  bought  ready  prepared,  a  fair  imitation  of  any  given 
wood  can  be  obtained  with  but  little  labour.  But  the 
polisher  who  wishes  to  hold  his  own  against  all  comers, 
must  be  able  to  do  more  than  merely  to  stain  and  polish 
a  plain  piece  of  new  wood. 

When  dealing  with  old  work  that  requires  repolishing, 
all  dirt,  grease,  and  furniture  paste  must  be  removed  by 
careful  washing  with  soda  and  warm  water  and 
powdered  pumice-stone  or  bath  brick.  It  can  then  be 
French  polished,  or  a  fresher  and  more  satisfactory 
appearance  may  be  given  by  applying  one  or  two  coats 
of  brown  hard  spirit  varnish — such  as  can  be  bought  at 
an  oil  and  colour  merchant's — carefully  with  a  camel- 
hair  brush. 

When  varnished  work  has  to  be  dealt  with,  first 
clean  off  all  the  varnish  and  then  repolish  in  the  way 
described  in  previous  chapters,  except  that  filling  will 
probably  be  dispensed  with.  The  varnish  can  generally 
be  more  easily  removed  by  scraping  than  by  papering. 
With  care  the  varnish  can  be  washed  off  with  soda  or 
potash  and  water,  but  on  account  of  the  liability 
to  injure  the  wood  it  is  scarcely  advisable  to  adopt 
this  method. 

For  removing  polish  from  flat  surfaces,  the  steel 
scrapers  as  used  by  cabinet-makers  are  the  best  tools 
to  use.  In  turned  and  other  work  which  has  an  un- 
even surface  the  old  coating  can  nearly  all  be  got  off 


REPOLISHING  AND  REPIYING.  59 

by  the  application  of  strong  hot  soda  water,  to  which 
may  be  added  some  oxalic  acid  in  difficult  cases.  When 
a  large  quantity  of  work  has  to  be  treated,  use  the 
following  mixture  : — £  Ib.  American  potash,  £  Ib.  soft 
soap,  \  Ib.  rock  ammonia,  1  Ib.  washing  soda,  3  ounces 
of  nitric  acid,  1  gallon  of  water.  Apply  with  a  fibre  or 
scrubbing  brush,  taking  care  of  the  hands.  Swill  off 
with  plenty  of  clean  water.  When  the  work  is  dry,  oil 
and  fill  in  ;  then  repolish. 

Spirit  varnish  can  be  removed  by  washing  with 
methylated  spirit,  which  redissolves  the  lac.  This  is 
both  a  tedious  and  somewhat  expensive  method,  which 
need  te  resorted  to  only  for  delicate  mouldings  and 
other  work  which  cannot  well  be  cleaned  by  scraping 
or  by  scouring  with  some  liquid  which,  though  it  would 
remove  the  varnish,  might  stain  and  so  spoil  the  wood. 
Methylated  spirit  being  neutral  may  be  used  on  any 
wood,  as  it  will  not  affect  the  colour. 

When  dealing  with  cabinets  or]  other  built-up  work, 
the  process  of  repolishing  will  be  simplified  somewhat 
by  taking  apart  as  much  as  convenient.'  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  unhinge  all  doors,  to  remove  all  carvings  that 
may  be  screwed  on  from  the  back,  and  to  remove  all 
knobs,  brass-fittings,  etc. — not  forgetting  to  put  some 
tallying  mark  on  each  piece  which  might  be  liable  to 
misplacement.  Thus  the  doors  can  be  better  handled 
on  the  bench,  the  corners  of  panels  can  be  worked  up 
better,  and  the  carvings  can  be  varnished  better.  When 
the  carvings  are  planted  on,  as  is  often  done,  a  much 
cleaner  job  is  made  if  these  are  first  removed ;  for  it  is 
a  difficult  task  to  polish  the  open  carvings  equal  to  the 
flat  surface. 

Sometimes  polished  work  is  disfigured  by  fine  little 
lines  which  are  caused  by  cracks,  resulting  from 
sweating.  These  lines  become  visible  through  the  dust 
settling  on  the  exuding  oil.  This  disfigurement  can 
be  averted  almost  entirely  by  occasionally  carefully 
wiping  with  a  soft  damp  cloth.  Sweating  is  not  entirely 
preventible,  but  when  the  oil  has  ceased  to  exude, 


60  WOOD  FINISHING. 

which  may  not  be  for  some  months,  the  work  may  be 
repolished  with  advantage. 

The  perfectly  level,'  brilliant  polish  found  on  new 
German  pianos  fills  many  an  English  French-polisher 
with  envy.  Unfortunately,  this  brilliant  polish  does 
not  last  long,  and  the  majority  of  the  pianos  soon  have  a 
greasy,  cracked  appearance.  Indeed,  there  are  but  few 
of  these  pianos  with  a  polish  gained  by  the  legitimate 
process  of  French-polishing.  This  brilliant,  level  polish 
is  gained  by  a  very  liberal  use  of  gum  sandarach,  and 
•when  the  polishing  is  completed  the  pianos  are  set 
aside  in  a  clean,  hot  room,  which  has  the  effect  of 
causing  the  polish  or  gums  to  flow  to  one  dead  level 
Some  makers  use  varnish  very  freely,  and,  before 
passing  to  the  hot  room,  level  this  by  means  of  pumice 
powder,  tripoli,  putty  powder,  and  sometimes  flour. 

When  the  requisite  number  of  coats  of  varnish  have 
been  laid,  the  surface  is  levelled  with  fine  glass-paper 
and  linseed-oil,  or  by  the  slower  process  of  felt  rubber 
and  pumice  powder.  After  being  wiped  perfectly  clean, 
a  rubber  made' of  soft  flannel,  or,  better  still,  of  old  silk, 
is  used  to  rub  carefully  and  lightly  in  a  circular  direction 
with  tripoli  powder  and  oil,  till  the  surface  is  perfectly 
level  and  inclined  to  be  bright ;  it  is  then  rubbed 
with  dry  putty  powder  and  silk,  and  finally  brightened 
with  flour. 

The  surface  should  be  left  perfectly  free  from  any 
trace  of  the  polishing  powders ;  neglect  of  this  accounts 
for  the  white  patches  sometimes  seen  on  the  German 
pianos.  These  patches  are  not  so  deep  as  they  appear 
at  first  sight,  and  may  often  be  removed  with  flour 
emery  and  linseed  oil  or  turps  without  disturbing  the 
polish. 

To  renovate  the  polish  on  these  pianos  is  difficult, 
but  when  it  is  not  very  bad,  a  reviver  made  of  equal 
parts  linseed  oil,  lime  water,  and  turps  is  generally 
effective.  The  lime  water  and  oil  are  first  thoroughly 
mixed  ;  then  the  turps  are  added,  and  the  mixture  is 
applied  by  means  of  wadding.  Tbe  surface  is  wiped  off 


REPOLISHING  AND  REVIVING  61 

with  a  rag,  and  finished  with  a  clean,  soft  rag-swab,  made 
fairly  moist  with  methylated  spirit.  Should  any  trace 
of  grease  still  remain,  change  to  a  clean  place  of  the 
already  moist  rag,  and  sprinkle  a  few  spots  of  glaze  on 
its  face,  or,  better  still,  wipe  the  face  of  the  glaze  rubber 
over  the  face  of  the  clean  swab. 

Should  this  method  prove  ineffective  it  will  be 
necessary  to  repolish,  first  removing  the  sweat  or  rough- 
ness by  fine  glass-paper  and  oil,  or  by  washing  with 
weak  soda-water  and  pumice  powder.  The  polish  used 
should  be  made  with  spirit  instead  of  naphtha,  and,  to 
ensure  its  lasting  qualities,  it  should  be  bodied  up  one 
day  and  finished  the  next. 

To  darken  the  birch  frame  of  a  chair,  wipe  it  over 
with  asphaltum  dissolved  in  turpentine  (one  penny- 
worth in  half  a  pint  of  turps).  This  stains  without 
giving  a  painted  appearance  ;  should  there  be  any 
difficulty  in  obtaining  asphaltum,  vandyke  brown  may 
be  used,  mixed  to  a  thin  paste  with  liquid  ammonia— or 
with  a  strong  solution  of  common  washing-soda.  This 
is  thinned  with  water,  till  of  the  required  tone,  which 
will  readily  be  found  by  trying  its  effect  on  any  odd  piece 
of  wood.  If  French  polish  cannot  be  applied,  the  most 
suitable  thing  to  use  is  brown  hard  spirit  varnish. 

For  restoring  polish  that  has  faded  from  damp 
or  exposure  to  the  sun,  those  stains  which  are  used 
to  stain  the  common  woods  will  not  be  suitable. 
It  may  be  convenient  to  remove  only  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  polish,  to  colour  the  faded  portion  so  as  to 
match  its  surroundings,  and  to  repolish  the  whole. 
When  the  polish  is  not  very  bad,  it  is  generally 
sufficient  to  smooth  it  well  with  a  piece  of  worn 
glass-paper.  When  it  is  much  scratched  or  faded, 
methylated  spirit  should  be  sprinkled  upon  it,  and  the 
surface  well  rubbed  with  No.  1  glass-paper,  applied  with 
a  circular  motion  ;  it  will  then  be  found  that  only  the 
upper  surface  of  the  polish  will  be  removed.  Before 
repolishing,  it  is  advisable  first  to  wash  the  article  with 
water  to  which  a  little  common  washing  soda  has  been 


62  WOOD  FINISHING 

added.  This  will  remove  any  dirt,  furniture  paste,  etc. ; 
a  little  pumice  powder  or  powdered  bath  brick  may  be 
used  to  assist. 

After  the  necessary  cleaning-off  of  dirt,  eta,  has 
been  accomplished,  any  bruises  must  be  removed,  either 
by  scraping  out  or  by  bringing  up  level,  by  means  of  a 
hot  iron  and  moisture,  or  by  filling  up  with  hard 
stopping,  or  by  the  still  better  method  given  on  page  69. 
When  this  has  been  done,  and  all  defective  parts  made 
good,  the  surface  must  be  wiped  over  with  an  oily  rag  ; 
it  assists  the  new  polish  to  take  kindly  to  the  old.  In 
scraping  out  the  bruises,  in  cleaning-off  level  any  new 
piece,  and  in  cleaning-off  the  polish,  it  is  probable  that 
light  patches  may  be  made.  More  especially  will  these 
be  made  apparent  if  the  damaged  portion  has  been 
previously  coloured  up  by  stains,  dry  colours,  or  dyed 
polish. 

For  colouring-up  or  matching,  it  is  generally 
sufficient,  if  the  wood  in  hand  is  mahogany,  to  wipe 
over  the  damaged  portion  with  red  oil,  which  consists  of 
\  Ib.  of  alkanet  root  steeped  in  1  pint  of  linseed-oil,  working 
up  with  red  polish.  Should  the  wood  be  walnut,  many 
a  little  blemish  and  scratch  in  soft  resinous  varnish  may 
be  matched  by  wiping  over  with  a  solution  of  one 
pennyworth  of  asphaltum  dissolved  in  \  pint  turps. 
Should  the  defect  be  a  piece  of  sap  or  other  light 
portion,  go  over  the  light  portion  several  times  with  the 
polish  rubber  to  prevent  the  grain  from  rising,  and  then 
saturate  a  small  tuft  of  wadding  with  3  parts  of 
methylated  spirits  to  1  part  of  polish  ;  on  this  wadding 
place  a  small  quantity  of  vandyke  brown  or  brown 
umber,  mix  well,  and  carefully  wipe  over  the  light 
portions,  thinning  out  with  spirits  if  too  dark,  picking 
up  a  little  more  colour  if  not  dark  enough,  adding  a 
little  black  if  required. 

Matching  stains  are  used  in  French  polishing  because 
light  and  dark  places  often  occur  in  the  best  selected 
woods,  and  in  stained  work,  owing  to  the  difference  in 
the  direction  of  the  grain.  To  tone  or  harmonise  the 


REPOLISHING  AND  REVIVING.  63 

entire  surface  to  one  uniform  shade,  is  technically  called 
matching  or  colouring  up,  and  requires  a  little  tact  and 
a  good  eye  for  colour.  On  large  flat  surfaces  coloured 
polish  may  be  used  with  advantage,  but  for  small  work 
it  would  be  better  to  take  a  small  tuft  of  wadding  and 
wet  it  with  1  part  polish  to  3  parts  spirits.  With  this 
take  up  a  little  yellow  ochre  and  just  a  trace  of  umber 
or  vandyke  brown.  Press  the  wadding  well  on  the  back 
of  a  piece  of  worn-out  glass-paper  to  equalise,  and  mix 
well.  Try  the  effect  on  an  odd  corner  of  the  work ;  if 
too  dark  thin  out  with  spirits  ;  if  not  dark  enough  pick 
up  more  colour,  or  wipe  over  twice.  Having  gained  the 
right  shade,  apply  lightly  with  a  straight  or  wavy 
motion  as  required.  This  would  enable  one  to  match 
the  oak,  but  any  wood  can  be  matched  by  using  suitable 
pigments,  a  red  tinge  being  usually  given  by  the  addition 
of  a  few  drops  of  Bismarck  brown  stain.  Though  it 
is  possible  to  proceed  to  polish  direct,  yet  it  would  be 
safer  to  set  the  stain  by  giving  a  coat  of  thin  spirit 
varnish,  and  allow  this  to  get  quite  dry  before  polishing. 
In  matching-up  satin  walnut,  the  polisher  must  use 
judgment,  for  the  work  can  hardly  be  regarded  as 
mechanical.  The  stain  must  depend  on  the  colour  or 
tint  of  the  lighter  parts,  and  of  the  darker  parts  to 
which  they  are  to  be  matched.  Generally  a  little 
weak  brown  stain  will  do  what  is  required.  When 
necessary,  it  can  be"  altered  slightly  in  colour  by  the 
addition  of  other  pigments,  according  to  the  tints 
desired. 

In  matching,  the  wavy  appearance  of  some  woods 
may  be  given  by  a  tremulous  movement  of  the  hand, 
and  the  mottled  appearance  of  others  by  dabbing  with  a 
badger  softener  or  clean,  soft  dusting-brush  while  the 
colour  is  still  wet.  Veins  either  black  or  red  may  be 
given  by  picking  up  a  little  dry  black  or  red  stain  on 
the  corner  of  the  tuft  of  wadding  and  applying  it  care- 
fully, taking  some  adjacent  portion  as  a  guide  for 
pattern.  For  rosewood,  red  stain  and  dry  black  may  be 
used  in  combination  ;  for  birch  or  oak,  use  yellow  ochra 


64  WOOD  FINISHING. 

When  the  work  in  hand  is  large,  and  requires  staining 
all  over,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  gain  the  desired  result 
by  means  of  dyed  polish  applied  with  the  rubber,  the 
colours  should  be  mixed  in  a  pot  with  3  parts  of  spirit 
to  one  of  polish,  and  applied  with  a  camel-hair  brush. 
The  work  is  not  so  liable  to  get  patchy  with  two  or 
more  coats  of  weak  stain  as  with  one  strong  one. 

After  laying  on  the  stain  allow  a  few  minutes  to 
elapse  for  it  to  set,  then  smooth  down  with  a  piece  of 
worn,  fine  glass-paper,  and  give  a  coat  of  thin  brush 
]>olish  or  spirit  varnish.  This  will  set  the  colours 
previous  to  polishing,  which  can  be  proceeded  with  in 
about  ten  minutes.  Mahogany,  rosewood,  and  walnut, 
if  not  inlaid,  are  generally  improved  by  the  use  of  a 
polish  tinged  by  the  addition  of  a  little  red  stain.  Other 
colours  may  also  be  mixed  with  polish  to  be  applied 
with  the  rubber.  When  using  these  dyed  polishes  cease 
when  just  the  right  tinge  is  attained  ;  another  rubber  may 
be  used  to  finish  off  with  clear  polish. 

In  repolishing  work  the  foundation  having  been 
already  laid,  the  polish  is  not  required  quite  so  thick  as 
in  polishing  the  bare  wood.  In  the  final  stage,  when 
finishing-off,  any  trace  of  greasiness  may  be  effectually 
removed  by  well-rubbing  with  a  swab  of  clean,  soft  rag, 
fairly  damp  (not  wet)  with  spirits,  on  the  face  of  which 
has  been  sprinkled  a  few  drops  of  glaze. 

Colours  in  a  dry  state  known  as  pigments,  such  as 
Venetian  red,  yellow  ochre,  vegetable  black  or  lampblack, 
umbers,  vandyke  brown,  chromes,  orange  and  lemon, 
greens,  blues,  flake  white,  etc.,  are  useful.  By  the  aid  of 
these,  the  polisher  is  enabled  to  match  woods  and  restore 
faded  polish,  far  more  expeditiously  than  can  be  done 
by  staining  or  using  dyed  polish  or  varnish.  Work  that 
might  puzzle  the  inexperienced  for  hours  can  be  done  in 
a  few  minutes  by  a  knowledge  of  the  use  of  dry  colours. 
They  are  used  in  some  stains  by  mixing  with  ammonia, 
glue  size,  pearlash,  soda,  and  they  are  used  to  colour  the 
"  filling-in "  of  whiting  and  turps  to  make  it  match  the 
various  woods.  Venetian  red  is  used  for  mahogany, 


REPOLISHWG  AND  REVIVING.  65 

umber  for  walnut,  black  for  ebony,  and  sometimes  to 
give  an  appearance  of  age  to  oak  by  making  the  grain 
appear  dirty. 

Sometimes  the  polisher  has  a  job  passed  to  him 
that,  properly  speaking,  ought  to  be  done  by  the 
painter.  The  quick  drying  nature  of  the  solutions  of 
shellac,  with  which  the  polisher  is  the  better  acquainted, 
obtains  for  him  the  preference.  For  example  shields, 
etc.,  for  decorative  purposes  that  may  reqtiire  five 
different  colours  and  a  coat  of  varnish,  can  be  coloured 
ready  for  fixing  within  twenty-four  hours.  To  do  this 
lime  blue,  chrome  yellow,  vegetable  black,  flake  white, 
and  vermilionette  or  any  other  colours  should  be  mixed 
with  ordinary  French  polish  to  the  consistency  of  thin 
paint,  thinning  out  when  necessary  with  methylated 
spirits.  Three  coats  of  colour  can  be  laid  on,  stencil 
patterns  cut  and  painted,  borders  and  edges  lined,  and 
the  whole  finished  with  a  coat  of  white  hard  varnish 
within  twelve  hours.  To  prevent  the  white  getting  a 
yellowish  tinge,  it  is  well  to  mix  it  with  transparent 
polish  made  from  white  shellac. 

To  make  imitation  marble  which  wears  well,  give 
several  coats  of  flake  white  mixed  in  polish ;  then  put 
in  the  veins  of  blue  or  black  with  feathers,  afterwards 
giving  a  coat  of  white  thinned  out  with  spirits.  This 
has  the  effect  of  making  the  veining  appear  beneath  the 
surface.  When  dry  it  is  finished  by  giving  a  coat  of 
good  quality  copal  varnish. 


66 


CHAPTER  IX. 

HARD   STOPPING  OK  BEAUMONTAGE. 

THE  French  polisher  who  does  much  repairing  and 
repolishing,  finds  hard  stopping,  or  beaumontage, 
exceedingly  useful,  for  if  carefully  selected  as  regards 
colour,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  it  from  the  wood 
when  polished  over. 

The  polisher  may  be  called  upon  to  repolish  furniture 
from  which  little  bits  of  veneer  are  chipped  off,  or  in 
which  some  bruise,  crack  or  blister,  presents  itself. 
With  his  glue-pot,  veneer,  and  cauls  at  hand,  the  cabinet- 
maker might  let  in  little  bits  of  wood,  or  run  in  hot 
glue,  and  apply  cauls,  hand-screws  or  weights,  as 
may  be  required.  The  polisher  may  be  out  of  reach  of 
such  appliances,  and  to  call  in  assistance  would  take 
away  all  his  profit,  besides  hindering  him  with  his  job. 
Something  that  will  enable  him  to  make  level  all  defects 
in  a  short  time  and  to  proceed  at  once  with  his  polish- 
ing is  found  in  hard  stopping. 

The  skilled  cabinet-maker  should  make  all  his  joints 
fit  closely,  and  arrange  his  nails  and  screws  in  such  a 
position  that  their  heads  will  be  out  of  sight,  and  leave 
no  holes  or  defects  to  need  filling  up.  But  he  will  find 
it  difficult  to  select  all  his  wood  and  to  prevent  any  slip 
or  accident  so  that  his  work  shall  have  neither  flaw, 
shaken,  or  hole,  and  he  will  welcome  a  composition  that 
will  fill  up  and  obliterate  all  defects.  A  mixture  of 
beeswax  and  resin  in  about  equal  parts  io  used  by  some 
for  such  a  purpose,  and  it  is  usually  made  up  in  two 
colours — red  for  mahogany  and  brown  for  walnut. 

The  cabinet-maker  has  little  need  for  such  a  com- 
position as  beaumontage  when  making  new  work,  but  it 
is  a  boon  to  those  who  have  to  depend  largely  upon 


HARD  STOPPING  OR  BEAUMONTAGE.         67 

repairs  and  chance  jobs  for  their  livelihood,  and  to  those 
who  have  made  some  useful  or  ornamental  article  with 
a  packing  case  or  other  cheap  class  of  wood.  With  such 
material  it  will  be  found  extremely  difficult  so  to  select 
the  wood  and  cut  it  that  a  nail  or  screw-hole,  or  a  flaw, 
does  not  occasionally  present  itself. 

Beaumontage  has  advantages  over  putty  or  beeswax 
and  resin.  Putty,  in  drying,  always  shrinks,  showing 
plainly  an  indentation  in  the  case  of  cracks  and  screw- 
holes.  If  used  on  white  wood  before  staining  and 
polishing,  its  oily  nature  prevents  the  stains  sinking  into 
the  wood  as  deeply  as  in  the  parts  untouched  by  it,  thus 
causing  the  work  to  have  a  patchy  appearance.  In 
beeswax  and  resin,  the  chief  fault  is  the  want  of  variety, 
the  colours  being  limited.  In  most  cases  it  is  kept  in  an 
iron  ladle  or  large  spoon,  which  is  not  convenient  for  a 
polisher  to  carry  with  him  in  his  kit  when  going  away 
from  home  to  work. 

Hard  stopping  can  be  made  up  in  an  infinite  variety 
of  colours  like  sticks  of  sealing-wax,  and  it  can,  with 
care,  be  selected  to  match  any  wood.  It  will  not  shrink, 
but  retains  a  level  surface  and  takes  the  polish  well. 
These  points  alone  are  sufficient  to  establish  its  superi- 
ority over  beeswax  and  resin  or  putty.  The  greater 
the  variety  of  colours  the  more  its  usefulness  becomes 
apparent.  It  gives  a  better  chance  of  matching,  and 
often  saves  the  staining  which  might  be  necessary  if  little 
bits  of  veneer  were  let  in. 

Beaumontage  is  easily  made,  but  can  be  bought 
ready  for  use  at  most  places  where  veneers  and  fancy 
woods  are  sold  for  about  one  penny  per  stick ;  it  is 
generally  called  "stopping-out  wax."  It  is  also  sold 
at  Is.  6d.  per  Ib.  in  various  colours. 

To  make  a  hard  stopping,  plane  up  two  pieces  of  wood 
about  f  in.  thick,  15  or  18  in.  long,  and  9  in.  wide,  one  of 
which  should  be  screwed  on  the  bench.  Take  a  cupful 
of  any  common  shellac,  put  it  in  a  tin  or  iron  pot  (a 
half-pound  mustard  or  coffee  tin  will  do),  add  a  tea- 
epoonful  of  powdered  resin,  a  piece  of  beeswax  the 


68  WOOD  FINISHING. 

size  of  half  a  walnut,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  pow- 
dered lemon  chrome.  Heat  till  the  whole  is 
melted,  stir  with  a  stick  to  properly  mix,  and  pour  a 
little  of  the  melted  composition  on  the  fixed  board. 
Then  gather  it  up  by  means  of  a  scraper  or  knife, 
roll  out  between  the  hands,  and  while  still  plastic  roll 
into  sticks  between  the  two  boards  by  passing  the 
uppermost  or  loose  board  to  and  fro.  If  the  loose  board 
is  made  warm  by  keeping  it  before  the  fire  when  not  in 
use,  it  gives  a  better  result.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
get  the  composition  too  hot,  as  it  spoils  by  boiling.  It 
will  require  practice  before  perfectly  round  sticks  can  be 
made. 

Proceed  to  make  sticks  of  stopping  in  the  following 
way :  Pour  sufficient  of  this  mixture  to  make  two  sticks 
of  this  colour ;  then  add  a  little  yellow  ochre,  and 
make  two  more  ;  these  will  give  two  shades  that  will  do 
nicely  for  oak.  Add  a  little  brown  umber,  warm  up 
again,  and  roll  out  two  more ;  these  'will  do  for  light 
walnut.  Add  a  little  more  umber  and  make  sticks  for 
dark  walnut ;  add  Venetian  red  for  mahogany,  and  a 
little  black  for  rosewood,  and  finally  finish  up  with  black 
for  ebony.  By  varying  the  amount  of  dry  colours  any 
number  of  shades  can  be  obtained,  and  it  will  be  found 
convenient  to  make  the  colours  in  the  order  suggested. 
If  the  darker  shades  are  made  first  it  will  be  found 
difficult  to  obtain  the  lighter  ones,  owing  to  the  dark 
colours  clinging  to  the  sides  of  the  pot. 

To  use  this  hard  stopping,  a  piece  of  flat  metal  that 
will  retain  heat  for  a  few  minutes  will  be  wanted.  A 
worn-out  6-in.  flat  file  in  a  handle  would  do  admirably. 
For  an  inch  or  so  from  the  point  the  file  teeth  should 
be  removed  by  the  aid  of  a  grindstone.  To  stop  a 
crack,  nail  or  screw- hole,  select  a  stick  of  stopping  the 
required  shade,  bearing  in  mind  that  if  the  wood  you 
are  at  work  upon  is  intended  to  be  afterwards  stained, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  select  stopping  of  the  colour  which 
the  article  is  intended  to  be  when  finished ;  for  the 
stopping  itself  cannot  be  stained  after  it  is  in  the  wood. 


HARD  STOPPING  OR  BEAUMONT  AGE.         69 

Have  the  iron  hot,  and  hold  it  in  the  right  hand  ;  with 
the  other  press  the  stick  of  stopping  against  it,  as 
the  stopping  is  run  into  the  defective  part,  somewhat 
similarly  to  the  way  in  which  the  tinker  uses  his  copper 
bit  and  solder.  When  the  crack  is  well  filled  and  a 
little  over,  press  the  stopping  well  in  while  the  iron  is 
still  warm.  When  cold,  clean  off  level  with  a  sharp 
chisel,  scraper,  or  knife,  and  then  use  glass-paper. 

It  will  help  the  stopping  to  hold  in  a  shallow  bruise 
if  a  few  holes  are  made  in  the  bruised  part  with  a  brad- 
awl or  chisel.  In  burr  walnut,  or  other  fancy  figured 
wood,  round  holes  are  best ;  in  straight-grained  wood, 
such  as  bay  or  mahogany,  a  straight  cut  from  a  chisel 
or  knife  is  preferable. 

A  bruise  may  often  be  raised  level  with  the  surface 
again.  Where  this  can  be  done  it  is  preferable  to  the 
use  of  beaumontage.  It  is  done  by  pouring  methy- 
lated spirit  in  the  hollow  which  forms  the  bruise  and 
setting  it  on  fire,  blowing  it  out  before  the  spirit  is  ex- 
hausted to  prevent  it  burning  the  wood.  It  will  be  found 
in  most  cases  that  the  bruise  has  come  up  level  with  the 
surface  ;  but  if  badly  bruised,  it  will  require  more  than 
one  application  of  spirit,  the  flame  of  which  must  always 
be  blown  out  before  the  spirit  itself  is  entirely  burnt 
away.  Bruises  of  nearly  every  description  can  be  raised 
in  this  way.  A  hot  iron  applied  near  to  the  dent  which 
has  been  wetted  will  also  bring  it  up  level. 

If  veneered  work  is  blistered,  make  a  number  of 
round  holes,  or  straight  slits  in  the  raised  part  and  run 
some  stopping  in,  and  press  down  with  the  hot  iron. 
With  care  this  is  a  more  expeditious  plan  than  opening 
the  blister,  putting  hot  glue  under,  and  applying  weights 
or  pressure.  The  stopping  holds  the  veneer  down  like 
pegs  or  nails. 

Beeswax,  made  up  of  various  colours,  will  be  found 
useful.  Slight  fissures  in  the  veneers,  imperfect  joints, 
or  places  where  the  stopping  has  not  quite  filled  up,  may 
be  made  much  more  presentable  by  the  aid  of  this. 
Heel -ball  and  cobbler's  wax,  though  sometimes  used, 


JO  WOOD    FlXlSHlA'G. 

caunot  be  recommended,  as  they  seldom  take  polish 
well.  Coloured  beeswax,  made  up  in  the  form  and  size 
of  heel-balls,  will  be  found  convenient,  and  it  can  be 
made,  as  described  for  stopping,  by  melting  the  wax  and 
adding  the  various  colours,  then  running  it  into  moulds. 
A  few  1J  in.  holes  bored  through  a  piece  of  hard  wood, 
about  £  in.  thick,  and  this  screwed  to  another  piece, 
makes  a  convenient  mould  into  which  to  run  the  melted 
wax.  When  cold,  the  discs  of  wax  are  easily  removed 
if  the  two  pieces  of  wood  be  unscrewed. 

In  making  good  the  defects  in  work  that  is  old,  and 
which  has  been  previously  polished,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  necessary  cleaning  off  will  leave  a  bare  patch  ; 
this  should  be  wiped  over  with  a  little  linseed  oil,  then 
bodied-up,  and  a  few  hours  or  a  night  allowed  in  which 
to  harden  before  finally  bodying-up  and  finishing. 


CHAPTER  X. 

TREATMENT   OP  FLOORS. 

THE  cuatom  of  staining  and  varnishing  floors  has,  apart 
from  sanitary  and  hygienic  reasons,  and  its  lightening 
of  the  daily  labour  of  cleaning,  much  to  recommend 
it.  The  margin  of  the  floors,  from  12  in.  to  36  in. 
wide,  is  stained  and  either  varnished  or  polished,  and 
art,  oriental,  or  other  squares  and  rugs  are  used  in  the 
middle  only,  instead  of  the  whole  of  the  floor  being 
covered  with  carpet ;  the  margin  left  on  the  stairs  by  the 
stair  carpet  is  similarly  treated.  From  an  artistic  stand- 
point much  might  be  said  in  favour  of  this  plan.  The 
working  man  generally  contents  himself  with  simply 
staining  and  varnishing  in  some  neutral  colour— mostly 
in  imitation  of  walnut.  His  wealthier  neighbour  has  a 
margin  of  parquetry,  made  of  various  kinds  of  wood  in 
veneer  or  blocks,  carefully  selected  and  joined  together 
by  experienced  hands  in  geometrical  designs.  These  are 
generally  finished  by  the  process  known  as  wax  polish. 
Whether  in  the  near  future  these  artistic  borderings  will 
be  used  in  the  homes  of  the  artisan  remains  to  be  seen. 
At  present  he  has  to  content  himself  with  floorcloth, 
linoleum,  or  stained  floorboards. 

In  America  they  have  what  are  called  "  hard-wood 
floors,"  made  of  veneers  cut  to  various  designs  and 
secured  in  position  by  strong  cloth  or  canvas  backing, 
and  made  up  in  designs,  usually  1  ft.  6  in.  by  4  ft. 
for  covering  the  central  part  of  a  floor.  For  the 
margins  a  separate  design  is  worked  out,  usually  in 
12  ft.  lengths  and  of  various  widths.  The  boarded 
floor  having  been  made  perfectly  level,  this  par- 
quetry is  secured  to  it  by  fine  brads  driven  through 
nea  rly  every  piece  of  wood ;  theae  brads  are  punched  a 


72  WOOD  FINISHING. 

little  below  the  surface,  and  the  holes  filled  up  with  putty 
coloured  to  match  the  wood.  After  cleaning  off  and 
glass-papering  the  hard  wood,  it  is  finished  by  oil  or 
wax  polish. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  here  to  offer  a  few  suggestions 
to  those  who  are  not  quite  able  to  decide  whether  their 
carpets  shall  fit  close  to  the  walls,  or  whether  a  square 
carpet  shall  be  laid  in  the  centre,  leaving  a  margin  all 
round  to  be  stained,  or,  as  is  often  the  case,  covered  with 
some  kind  of  floorcloth. 

The  disadvantage  of  a  close-fitted  carpet  is  that  it 
cannot,  without  difficulty,  be  taken  up,  and  as  this  ia 
not  done  frequently,  dirt  accumulates.  A  square  of 
carpet,  however  it  is  laid,  can  be  taken  up  and  re-laid 
without  much  trouble.  On  the  score  of  economy,  strong 
arguments  can  be  given  in  favour  of  squares.  The 
initial  cost  is  considerably  less,  for  there  is  little  or  no 
cutting  to  waste,  even  when  the  square  is  made  up  of 
ordinary  carpeting ;  whereas,  in  a  room  having  a  carpet 
closely  fitted  to  the  floor,  a  considerable  quantity  may 
be,  and  often  is,  cut  to  waste.  Thus  saving  is  effected  by 
using  a  smaller  carpet,  there  being  no  waste  in  material. 
The  only  objection  to  squares  that  can  be  seriously 
urged  has  merely  to  do  with  the  question  of  appearance, 
as  some  people  think  that  a  floor  which  is  carpeted  all 
over  looks  more  comfortable. 

Preparing  the  Floor.  —  Before  anything  in  the 
way  of  staining  can  be  done  the  floor  must  be 
made  perfectly  level.  If  it  is  an  old  flooring,  pull 
up  any  nails  which  have  been  used  for  fastening 
carpets.  The  nail-holes  may  be  filled  with  putty, 
but  in  recesses  and  dark  corners  it  may  not  be  neces- 
sary tc  take  this  trouble.  All  floor  nails  should  be 
punched  in  at  least  one-eighth  of  an  inch  below  the 
surface.  If  the  boards  do  not  fit  closely  together,  fill  in 
all  openings  with  strips  of  wood  planed  wedge  shape. 
These  should  be  brushed  over  with  glue  on  both  sides, 
then  driven  well  home  with  a  mallet,  and  allowed  to 
stand  till  next  day  before  planing  off  level.  If  an 


TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS.  73 

ordinary  smoothing  plane  is  used  for  this  purpose  it  will 
be  found  impossible  to  plane  lengthways  close  up  to  the 
skirting  board.  A  useful  plane  for  such  a  purpose  ia 
known  as  a  bull-nose,  a  section  of  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8.  With  this  it  is  possible  to  smooth  the  floor  to 
within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  skirting;  the  re- 
maining portion  can  be  smoothed  with  a  chisel  and 
finished  with  glass-paper.  The  floor,  whether  newly 
laid  or  not,  must  be  perfectly  free  from  grease  and  paint. 
To  ensure  this  it  is  a  wise  plan  to  give  it  a  good  scouring 


Fig.  8.— Bull-nose  Plane  in  Section. 

with  hot  water,  in  which  common  soda  has  been  dis- 
solved instead  of  soap.  When  the  floor  is  perfectly  dry 
give  another  rub  down  with  No.  1  glass-paper.  The 
best  thing  to  use  to  scrub  a  dirty  floor  is  a  common  brick, 
or  a  Bath  brick.  The  brick  is  dipped  in  soda  water  and 
used  like  a  scrubbing  brush.  Lump  pumice  stone  is 
also  used  for  this  purpose. 

For  the  purpose  of  stopping  up  nail-holes,  etc., 
plasterjiof  Paris  is  sometimes  recommended.  Should  it 
be  used,  it  must  be  done  previow  to  any  staining.  Putty 
is  the  material  in  most  general  use,  but  on  no  account 
must  it  be  used  with  stains  that  are  mixed  with  water. 
As  putty  is  a  mixture  of  whiting  and  linseed  oil,  this 
will  prevent  the  stain  sinking  into  the  wood  ;  conse- 
quently a  patchy  appearance  will  be  the  result.  Should 
the  stains  have  a  spirit,  oil,  or  varnish  basis,  it  is  of 
little  moment  when  the  holes  are  filled  up,  though  it  ia 
wise  to  give  the  floor  at  least  one  coat  of  stain  first 


74  WOOD  PINISHING 

The  putty  or  plaster  should  be  coloured  to  match  the 
stain  by  the  addition  of  some  colouring  medium. 

If  the  floor  be  a  dirty  or  discoloured  one,  it  is  advisa- 
ble to  plane  all  over  the  portion  to  be  stained,  otherwise 
the  difference  between  new  and  old,  clean  and  dirty 
surfaces  will  probably  be  plainly  discernible. 

So  far  we  have  presumed  that  the  floor  is  of  common 
spruce  or  deal.  Should  it  be  of  oak,  equal  pains  must 
be  taken  in  its  preparation. 

A  simple  and  effective  way  to  stain  floors  is  to  take 
one  pint  of  methylated  spirit ;  in  this  dissolve  fou? 
ounces  of  shellac ;  then  add,  for  a  walnut  colour,  as 
much  brown  umber  as  will  give  the  tone  required  in  two 
or  more  applications.  Similarly,  Venetian  red  may  be 
added  for  mahogany,  and  yellow  ochre  for  piue.  Apply 
this  with  a  brush  to  the  boards,  and  when  dry,  smooth 
down  with  fine  glass-paper.  By  wiping  over  with  a 
little  linseed  oil  on  flannel  it  will  be  kept  fresh 
looking ;  or  it  may  be  finished  bright  by  giving  two 
coats  of  best  oak  varnish.  It  also  forms  a  capital  basis 
for  wax  or  French  polish. 

Marking  Out  the  Floor. — For  good  workmanship  it 
is  essential  that  the  floor  should  be  marked  out,  and  all 
staining  done  to  a  clean  cut  edge,  particularly  if  it  is 
intended  to  finish  with  a  border  or  stencil  pattern. 
In  deciding  what  width  the  margin  shall  be,  allow 
at  least  3  in.  of  the  stained  portion  to  be  underneath 
the  carpet ;  thus,  on  laying  down  the  carpet,  if  the 
edge  is  found  to  stand  18  in.  from  the  skirting, 
mark  the  margin  to  be  stained  at  least  21  in  wide.  This 
marking  out  is  sometimes  dispensed  with,  the  work 
being  done  in  a  haphazard  fashion,  and  sometimes 
the  carpet  is  fixed  previous  to  staining  and  varnish- 
ing. Both  methods  are  to  be  deprecated ;  they  stamp 
the  work  as  having  been  done  by  inexperienced  hands. 

Staining. — Unquestionably  the  best  method  is  that 
of  using  stains  first,  then  sizing  and  varnishing,  unless  it 
should  be  thought  that  varnish  is  too  bright  and  glaring. 
In  that  case  it  may  be  finished  by  wax  polish,  oil  polish, 


TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS.  75 

or  French  polishing ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
for  the  last-named  process  the  floor  must  be  exception- 
ally well  cleaned  up. 

Varnish  is  to  be  recommended  generally  for  use  in 
ordinary  rooms.  It  requires  less  attention  to  keep  in 
order  than  wax.  An  occasional  coat  of  varnish  will 
restore  the  margin  to  its  original  gloss.  "Wax- polished 
floors  require  rubbing  frequently,  and  they  cannot  be 
washed  without  destroying  the  gloss,  so  the  style  of 
finish  is  not  strongly  advocated,  except  for  floors  used 
for  dancing  purposes.  As  traffic  over  waxed  floors  soon 
destroys  their  gloss,  it  is  advisable  to  have  plenty  of  mats 
or  rugs  lying  about,  especially  near  the  doorway. 

Oiling  has  few,  if  any,  advantages  beyond  the  cheap- 
ness of  the  work,  and  can  hardly  be  recommended  aa 
suitable  for  ordinary  dwelling-houses.  At  its  best,  an 
oiled  floor  never  looks  as  well  as  one  that  is  varnished, 
and  it  is  only  where  there  is  much  traffic,  and  when 
expense  is  a  prime  consideration,  that  this  is  the  most 
suitable  finish. 

Floors  are  not  often  French  polished,  but  spirit 
varnish  of  good  quality  may  be  used  on  floors  that 
are  not  subject  to  much  hard  wear. 

Whatever  may  be  the  method  decided  upon  for  tho 
finish,  staining  must  first  be  done.  This  is  usually  in 
imitation  of  oak  or  walnut ;  but  there  is  no  particular 
reason — beyond  custom — why  other  colours  should  not 
be  used. 

Several  well-known  makes  of  stain  are  in  the  market 
which  can  be  confidently  recommended  for  the  purpose. 
Those  who  desire  to  make  their  own  stain  will  find  full 
particulars  in  Chapter  XI.;  but  there  is  no  better  recipe 
than  vandyke  brown,  ammonia,  and  water.  The  pro- 
portions are  of  little  importance.  The  vandyke  brown 
is  mixed  with  the  ammonia  to  form  a  thin  paste ;  water 
must  afterwards  be  added  to  reduce  the  strength  and 
liquefy  the  stain.  A  thin  paste  is  mentioned,  and  it 
must  be  understood  that  a  thick  paste  is  not  satisfac- 
tory ;  but  the  mixture  may  be  diluted  to  almost  any 


76  WOOD  FINISHING. 

extent  without  detriment.  Care  most  be  taken  that  the 
brown  is  thoroughly  mixed.  The  mixed  brown  and 
ammonia  paste  may  be  kept  as  a  stock  preparation  to  be 
used  with  water  as  may  be  required,  or  it  may  have 
water  added  and  be  kept  in  a  diluted  state  ready  for 
use.  It  is  advisable  to  mix  at  least  as  much  as  will 
suffice  to  do  a  room  entirely,  and  so  avoid  a  difficulty  in 
matching  a  fresh  mixture  to  an  exact  shade.  As  to  the 
quantity  required,  it  has  already  been  pointed  out  (see 
p.  16)  that  one  gallon  will  cover  one  hundred  square  yards, 
one  gallon  of  varnish  being  required  for  the  same  surface. 

When  the  stain  is  all  ready  in  a  paint  kettle  or  other 
convenient  receptacle,  select  a  large  sash  tool,  as  used  by 
painters,  and  a  fitch,  or  small  sash  tool,  for  doing 
the  edges.  Apply  the  stain  plentifully,  lengthways  of 
the  floor  boards,  commencing  at  the  right  or  left  of  the 
fireplace  and  working  round  to  the  door.  Recommence 
on  the  other  side  of  the  fireplace,  working  round  to- 
wards the  door  again,  so  allowing  free  ingress  to  the 
room  without  interfering  with  the  staining  operations. 
Allow  the  stain  several  hours  to  dry.  Should  the  colour 
not  be  sufficiently  dense  repeat  the  operation  as  before, 
bearing  in  mind  that  two  coats  of  a  lighter  shade  will 
give  a  better  result  and  be  more  evenly  distributed  than 
one  coat  of  darker  colour.  It  is  strongly  advised  that 
experiments  should  be  made  on  odd  pieces  of  wood  to 
get  the  desired  colour  before  commencing  the  floor. 

Care  should  be  taken,  especially  if  potash  or  soda 
has  been  used  in  it,  not  to  let  the  stain  get  on  a 
painted  skirting-board. 

If  a  simple  margin  of  one  uniform  colour  is  all  that 
is  wanted,  it  will  now  be  ready  for  one  or  two  coats  of 
clear  size.  Size  is  used  to  economise  varnish  ;  it  is  much 
cheaper  and  fills  the  grain  of  the  wood,  which  thus 
absorbs  less  varnish,  and  allows  it  to  remain  on  the 
surface  where  it  is  wanted.  If  the  varnish  sinks  there 
is  comparatively  little  gloss.  The  size  may  be  obtained 
of  almost  any  oil  and  colourman.  It  is  applied  to  the 
floor  like  the  stain,  and  must  be  allowed  to  become 


TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS.  77 

thoroughly  dry  before  varnishing.  After  sizing,  fill  up 
with  plaster  of  Paris,  made  into  a  thin  paste  with  water, 
all  nail-holes  and  crevices  in  which  it  has  been  found 
impracticable  to  insert  slips  of  wood. 

Combined  Stains  and  Varnish. — With  a  view  to 
simplifying  the  process,  varnish  makers  have  put 
upon  the  market  combined  stains  and  varnish.  These 
stains  claim  to  give  tones  varying  from  light  oak  to 
dark  walnut ;  the  latter  colour  is  gained  by  giving  suc- 
cessive coats.  Their  use  is  not  strongly  recommended, 
except  where  the  lighter  tones  have  been  chosen,  and 
then  the  work  is  given  a  finishing  coat  of  good  oak 
\arnish  to  equalise  it  in  appearance  and  body. 

For  a  wax-polished  floor  it  is  only  necessary  to  stain, 
and  then  when  dry,  wax-polish  in  accordance  with  the 
instructions  given  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  that 
subject. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  oil  finishing,  except  that 
it  will  be  understood  that  the  same  care  is  not  neces- 
sary as  with  furniture.  Indeed,  on  a  floor  it  is  useless 
to  get  polish  with  oil,  which  is  useful  to  enrich  the 
colour  of  the  stain,  and  that  is  all. 

A  very  useful  stain  may  be  made  by  thinning  or- 
dinary paint  with  turpentine.  Of  course  the  turpentine 
causes  the  paint  to  dry  flat  or  dead,  but  a  coat  of  varnish 
will  soon  alter  this. 

Decorative  Borders. — Some  rooms  may  be  improved 
in  appearance  by  a  decorative  border,  as  shown  in  the 
suggestive  illustrations  (Fig.  9).  These  borders  need  not 
be  elaborate  in  design ;  simple  yet  bold  patterns  give 
the  better  general  effect — on  the  same  principle  that  the 
carpet  designer  does  not  rely  so  much  on  the  elaboration 
of  detail  as  on  the  careful  selection  and  blending  of 
colours. 

Presuming  that  the  floor  margin  has  been  stained 
brown  and  the  inner  edge  left  cut  clean,  mark  out  the 
portion  it  is  intended  to  decorate.  The  groundwork  of 
this  may  be  pine,  satinwood,  or  light  mahogany.  The 
colours  selected  for  the  stencil  should  then  be  in  marked 


78  WOOD  FINISH  ING 

contrast,  such  as  rosewood,  black  or  brown.  Stencil- 
plates  may  be  bought,  or  they  may  be  cut  out  of  paper- 
hanger's  lining  paper,  care  being  taken  to  cut  them 


fig.  9. — Suggestions  for  Border  Ornaments  for  Floor. 

clean  and  sharp,  and  to  leave  in  sufficient  tie-pieces  or 
break  lines  to  hold  the  stencil  intact.  Give  the  paper 
stencil-plates  a  coat  of  Unseed  oil  to  strengthen  and 
preserve  them, 


TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS.  79 

Mix  the  stencil  paint  to  the  colour  decided  upon  and 
the  consistency  of  stiff  paste ;  take  up  a  little  of  this 
with  a  stencil-brush,  Fig.  10,  which  is  specially  made 
for  the  purpose,  and  spread  it  on  a  slate  or  smooth  piece 
of  board,  then  stipple  it  through  the  stencil-plate.  If 
care  is  taken  to  keep  the  stencil-plate  motionless  on 
the  work  during  the  process  of  applying  the  paint,  and 
the  brush  has  not  been  charged  with  too  much  at  a  time, 
the  pattern  should  be  clearly  and  sharply  imprinted  on 
the  floor. 

Should  the  imitation  of  tiles  be  attempted,  mark 
them  out  to  correspond  with  the  boards — that  is,  with 
boards  7  in.  wide  set  out  the  tiles  7  in.  square— and  these 


Fig.  10.— Stencil  Brush. 

may  be  subdivided  at  pleasure.  The  reason  for  this 
precaution  should  be  apparent ;  should  the  boards 
shrink,  it  certainly  would  not  look  well  to  see  a  row  of 
tiles  apparently  cracked. 

Black  or  other  dark  colour  lines  of  at  least  |  in.  wide 
should  divide  the  plain  from  the  decorated  portions  of  a 
floor,  and  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  decoration  a  width  of 
at  least  3  in.  should  be  stained  the  same  colour  as  the 
margin.  The  lines  may  be  put  in  with  a  lining  fitch  or 
pencil,  using  the  thick  paint  as  advised  for  the  stencils  ; 
or  suitable  colours  may  be  mixed  with  equal  parts  of 
French  polish  and  spirits.  Imitation  tiles  should  be 
outlined  with  black  or  brown  lines  at  least  Jg-  in.  wide. 
A  glance  at  some  printed  floorcloth  or  linoleum  will 
show  how  this  is  done. 

Finishing  Processes. — All  staining  and  decorating 
being  finished,  the  work  is  then  sized,  care  being  taken 
to  use  the  size  only  moderately  hot,  and  to  work  the 
brush  about  as  little  as  possible  to  avoid  breaking  up 
the  colours  ;  it  is  then  allowed  to  get  quite  dry.  It  is  next 


8o  WOOD  FINISHING. 

smoothed  down  with  fine  worn  glass-paper;  all  dust  Ls 
removed,  and  one  or  two  coats  of  good  varnish,  such  as 
hard  oak,  are  laid  on  with  a  brush,  starting  next  to  the 
fireplace,  as  advised  in  staining.  Whatever  varnish  is 
used,  it  should  be  laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  it  may  be 
noted,  as  in  staining,  that  two  coats  thinly  laid  on  are 
better  than  one  applied  thickly.  In  many  cases  one 
coat  is  all  that  is  needed.  Let  the  varnish  stand  several 
days  to  harden  before  allowing  it  to  be  walked  on. 

The  feet  of  chairs,  or  other  portions  of  furniture 
resting  upon  the  varnished  surface,  should  be  kept  from 
scratching  it  by  gluing  on  to  them  pieces  of  cloth  or 
wash-leather.  Should  the  varnish  get  scratched  or  show 
white  marks,  try  the  effect  of  wiping  over  with  a  little 


Si 


CHAPTER  XL 

STAINS. 

SOME  general  information  on  processes  of  staining 
wood  is  given  in  Chapter  II.  The  present  chapter  will 
deal  chiefly  with  the  making  of  various  kinds  of  stains. 

The  following  recipes  apply  to  the  staining  of  common 
woods  to  imitate  the  more  costly  : — 

Walnut.— (a)  1  pennyworth  nut-galls,  1  pennyworth 
Vandyke  brown,  £  Ib.  American  potash,  1  gal.  water. 
Cost,  fourpence  per  gallon.  The  nut-galls  should  be 
crushed  and  mixed  with  the  potash,  and  the  -water 
added  hot.  The  stain  may  be  used  hot  or  cold.  A 
little  brown  umber  may  be  included  in  the  mixture 
if  desired.  (6)  Mix  Vandyke  brown,  or  equal  parts 
Vandyke  brown  and  brown  umber,  into  a  thin  paste 
with  liquor  ammonia  ;  thin  down  to  the  required  tone 
with  water.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  use 
ammonia  in  the  walnut  stain,  but  it  is  better  to  do  so. 
The  smell  will  soon  evaporate,  and  it  can  hardly  be 
objectionable  if  the  stain  stands  for  a  few  days  before 
using  it.  Caustic  soda  or  potash  may  be  used  instead  of 
ammonia,  but  against  these  objections  may  be  urged, 
(c)  i  Ib.  asphaltum  dissolved  in  1  pt.  turpentine  or 
coal-tar  naphtha.  This  is  useful  for  common  work,  but 
requires  to  be  coated  with  brush  polish  or  varnish 
before  it  will  polish  readily,  (d)  1  gal.  strong  vine- 
gar, 1  Ib.  burnt  umber,  £  Ib.  rose  pink,  £  Ib.  Vandyke 
brown.  Apply  with  brush  or  sponge,  (e)  2  oz.  of  com- 
mon black  privet  berries,  such  as  grow  in  most  gardens, 
may  be  gathered  in  the  winter  season  ;  £  pt.  solution  of 
ammonia.  Applied  to  pine  woods  to  be  polished  or 
varnished,  this  is  said  to  give  a  very  good  imitation, 
hard  to  detect  from  real  walnut.  (/)  For  cheap  work, 


8z  WOOD  FINISHING. 

such  as  floor-margins,  use  ordinary  glue-size,  coloured 
by  the  addition  of  brown  umber  and  a  very  little  black 
or  red.  This  should  be  applied  with  a  brush,  and  then 
well  rubbed  in  with  a  piece  of  rag.  One  or  more  coats 
may  be  given,  according  to  the  tone  required.  When 
dry,  smooth  down  with  fine  glass-paper  before  applying 
the  varnish,  (g)  When  the  staining  of  floors  first  came 
into  vogue,  the  stain  largely  adopted  was  a  solution 
of  1  oz.  permanganate  of  potash  to  a  quart  of  water. 
Though  purple,  this  dries  a  rich  brown  colour  when 
laid,  and  has  the  merit  of  imitating  no  particular  wood, 
but  gives  a  colour  that  harmonises  with  most  carpets. 
(For  further  information  on  staining  floors  see  Chapter  X.) 
(A)  2  ozs.  Vandyke  brown,  2  ozs.  American  potash,  1  oz. 
bichromate  of  potash,  a  piece  of  soda  the  size  of  a  walnut, 
the  same  amount  of  sulphate  of  copper,  a  small  piece  of 
sulphate  of  iron,  2  ozs.  nitric  acid,  and  1  gallon  of  water. 
Boil  the  water,  brown,  bichromate,  soda,  and  sulphates 
until  melted  and  well  mixed.  Then  add  the  American 
potash,  which  must  be  first  put  in  a  little  water,  other- 
wise it  will  effervesce  over  the  sides  of  the  pot.  When 
lukewarm  add  the  acid.  (»)  Extract  of  walnut  is  now 
looked  upon  as  an  old-time  method,  owing  partly  to  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  the  green  walnuts  when  out  of 
season.  Something  always  at  hand  is  preferred.  The 
extract  can  easily  be  made  by  bruising  the  walnuts 
and  adding  common  washing  soda  and  hot  water, 
(j)  Ordinary  white  wood  can  be  given  the  appearance 
of  black  walnut  by  first  thoroughly  drying  the  wood, 
and  when  warmed,  coating  it  two  or  three  times  with 
a  strong  solution  of  walnut  peel.  The  wood  thus 
treated  is  washed  over  when  nearly  dry  with  a  solu- 
tion of  bichromate  of  potash,  one  part  in  five  parts  of 
boiling  water.  When  thoroughly  dried,  rub  and  polish. 
Oak, — (a)  Wipe  over  with  crushed  asphaltum  dis- 
solved in  turpentine  (i  Ib.  to  the  pint).  (6)  Take  some 
brown  umber,  mix  into  a  thin  paste  with  liquor  am- 
monia, then  thin  out  with  water  till  the  required  shade 
is  gained,  (c)  One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  staining 


83 

deal  and  obtaining  the  dull  polish  seen  on  very  dark 
oak  is  to  stain  it  and  then  varnish  with  flatting  varnish 
as  follows  : — First  see  that  the  work  is  entirely  free 
from  glue,  grease,  and  rough  places,  and  then  stain  twice 
with  dark  oak  stain,  softening  down  between  each  coat, 
before  the  stain  dries,  with  a  soft  brush,  called  a  badger, 
which  will  take  out  brush  marks  left  in  staining.  This 
must  be  done  thoroughly  and  quickly,  as  any  touching 
up  is  almost  sure  to  show.  When  the  stain  is  dry,  rub 
it  down  with  a  piece  of  canvas,  not  glass-paper,  which  is 
very  liable  to  leave  white  marks.  The  canvas  can  be  got 
more  easily  into  the  hollows  of  columns  and  mouldings. 
In  all  stained  work,  the  less  glass-paper  used,  even  in 
preparing  the  work,  the  better.  In  no  case  may  the 
paper  be  used  across  the  grain,  as  it  is  sure  to  show. 
Coat  twice  with  best  clear  size,  rubbing  down  between 
each  coat  as  explained  for  staining.  If  the  work  is  var- 
nished with  good  flatting  varnish,  and  then  hard  rubbed 
with  a  soft  rag  or  piece  of  silk,  the  surface  should  have 
a  nice  dull  gloss,  (d)  The  following  mixture  allows  of 
great  latitude  in  shade  as  well  as  in  actual  colour, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  water : — Vandyke  brown 
mixed  with  liquor  ammonia,  and  then  diluted  with 
water,  a  little  Bismarck  brown  being  added  to  give  the 
reddish  tint  required,  (e)  Another  good  stain  may  be 
made  by  dissolving  bichromate  of  potash  in  water.  By 
modifying  this  with  Vandyke  brown  or  Stephens'  walnut 
stain,  almost  any  required  shade  of  brown  may  be  ob- 
tained. Alone  it  gives  rather  too  much  of  an  orange 
hue,  so  some  persons  prefer  to  add  a  little  walnut-stain, 
which  removes  the  reddish  cast  or  harshness.  It  is  easy 
ta  give  several  applications  if  one  is  not  strong  enough. 
Apply  the  stain  with  a  brush,  and  allow  it  to  turn 
colour  by  action  of  light  and  air.  This  stain  is  useful 
for  a  variety  of  purposes,  thus :  Light  oak  may  be 
made  to  match  brown  or  pollard  oak ;  common  bay- 
wood  to  match  superior  mahogany;  and  common  ma- 
hogany to  represent  old  Spanish.  No  hard-and-fast 
rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  whether  the  work  should  be 


84  WOOD  FINISHING. 

previously  oiled  or  not.  Some  claim  that  if  it  is  not 
oiled  the  stain  will  strike  deeper ;  on  the  other  hand, 
experience  proves  that  if  the  work  is  oiled  first  the  stain 
is  more  evenly  distributed,  and  that  the  grain  does  not 
rise  to  the  same  extent ;  but  it  should  be  well  rubbed 
in,  not  left  merely  on  the  top  of  the  oil.  Permanganate 
of  potash  may  be  used  instead  of  bichromate  of  potash 
(see  Stains  for  Walnut,  p.  81).  (/)  Yellow  pine  can 
be  stained  to  resemble  oak  in  colour  by  very  simple 
means,  but  if  it  is  intended  that  the  figure  should  also 
be  imitated,  this  will  be  found  a  more  difficult  task  A 
rich  dark  colour  can  be  gained  by  dissolving  2  Ibs.  of 
patent  size  in  1  pt.  of  water,  adding  some  brown  umber  to 
give  a  brown  shade,  applying  while  still  hot  with  a 
brush,  and  wiping  off  all  surplus  with  a  piece  of  rag. 
When  dry,  smooth  down  with  a  piece  of  canvas  or  coarse 
rag,  and  fill  up  all  nail-holes,  etc.,  with  stopping  coloured 
to  match ;  then  to  gain  the  rich  brown  colour,  wipe 
over  with  a  solution  of  i  Ib.  of  asphaltum  in  1  pt. 
of  turps.  Allow  this  to  stand  till  the  next  day  to 
harden,  then  varnish  with  church  oak  varnish  of  good 
quality,  (g)  Should  it  be  desired  to  imitate  the  figure 
or  grain  of  oak  as  well  as  the  colour,  satisfactory  results 
may  be  obtained  by  using  size  and  yellow  ochre  instead 
of  umber.  Pass  a  steel  graining-comb  over  the  asphaltum 
when  nearly  set,  and  wipe  clean  a  few  light  places  with  a 
piece  of  rag  slightly  wet  with  turps  and  held  in  position 
over  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand.  The  "sap"  marks 
will  be  concealed  if  they  are  coated  at  least  twice 
with  the  size  and  colour.  In  either  case  experiment  on 
a  few  odd  pieces  of  similar  wood  previous  to  attempting 
the  actual  work,  (h)  A  much-admired  orange-yellow 
tone  may  be  imparted  to  oak  by  rubbing  it  with  a  mixture 
of  about  3  ozs.  of  tallow  and  £  oz.  of  wax,  with  1  pt.  of 
oil  of  turpentine.  Mix  by  heating  together  and  stirring. 
This  is  used  in  a  warm  room,  when  the  wood  acquires 
a  dull  polish.  It  is  coated  after  an  hour  with  thin  polish, 
repeating  the  coating  of  polish  to  improve  the  depth  and 
brilliancy  of  the  tone. 


STAINS.  85 

Dark  Oak. — (a)  Take  Vandyke  brown  £  lb.,  ammonia 
i  pt.,  and  mix  with  water.  (6)  Mix  2  ozs.  of  pearl- 
ash  and  2  ozs.  American  potash  in  a  quart  of  hot 
water,  and  apply  to  the  parts  to  be  stained,  (c)  2  ozs. 
Vandyke  brown,  1  pt.  liquid  ammonia,  1  oz.  bichromate 
of  potash.  A  tinge  of  red  in  the  potash  or  varnish  will 
improve  these,  (d)  Two  pennyworth  of  Vandyke  brown 
in  oil,  i  pint  of  terebine,  j  pint  of  turpentine,  and  £  pt.  of 
kerosine  or  paraffin  oil.  Mix  well,  and  try  on  a  piece 
of  planed  deal,  first  laying  it  on  thinly  with  a  piece  of 
sponge  or  old  felt.  If  too  dark,  add  more  paraffin. 
This  stain  may  be  brightened  by  using  more  or  less  of 
raw  sienna,  also  ground  in  oil,  instead  of  all  Vandyke, 
thinning  as  required  with  paraffin  oil.  By  some  it  is 
used  largely  for  trade  purposes,  being  cheap,  easily  and 
quickly  applied,  having  a  nice  appearance,  and  leaving 
the  work  with  a  smooth  surface  ready  for  polishing  or 
varnishing,  (e)  4  ozs.  American  potash,  4  ozs.  Vandyke 
brown.  The  potash  must  first  be  dissolved  in  a  little 
water.  Boil  the  brown  in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  while 
hot  add  the  potash.  (/)  A  cheap  substitute  for  dark  oak 
stain  can  be  obtained  by  thinning  down  with  turpentine 
good  Brunswick  black  to  the  shade  required ;  but 
unless  one  thoroughly  knows  the  nature  of  these 
materials,  this  plan  had  better  not  be  adopted.  Imitation 
antiques  are  thus  treated,  and  finished  by  wax  polishing. 

Maple. — (a)  Yellow  pine,  simply  varnished  with  two 
or  three  coats  of  copal,  or  sized  twice  and  varnished 
once,  will  be  as  near  the  tone  of  maple  as  can  be  got 
without  painting  and  graining. 

Mahogany.— (a)  Common  work,  such  as  kitchen 
tables,  chairs,  etc.,  is  generally  wiped  over  with  glue- 
size  heavily  stained  with  Venetian  red  ;  the  desired 
tone  being  brought  up  by  means  of  coloured  polish  and 
varnish.  (6)  For  better  class  work  it  is  better  to  wipe 
over  first  with  a  weak  walnut  stain,  then  a  mahogany 
etain,  which  may  be  made  by  dissolving  in  water  or  spirits 
a  little  Bismarck  brown.  This  is  a  very  powerful  pig- 
ment, and  as  much  as  will  stood  on  a  shilling  will  colour  a 


86  WOOD  FINISHING. 

pint  of  polish  probably  sufficient  for  general  use,  though 
more  or  less  may  be  added'  according  to  the  intensity 
desired.  Strain  through  muslin  before  using,  (c)  A 
French  plan  is  to  first  rub  the  surface  with  diluted 
nitric  acid,  to  prepare  it  for  the  materials  subsequently 
applied ;  it  is  afterwards  treated  with  several  applica- 
tions of  a  filtered  solution  of  H  oz.  dragon's  blood  dis- 
solved in  1  pt.  methylated  spirit,  to  which  has  been 
added  £oz.  carbonate  of  soda,  (d)  A  light  brown 
mahogany  colour  may  be  given  by  means  of  ^  Ib.  madder, 
and  ^  Ib.  fustic,  to  1  gal.  of  water  applied  hot.  (e) 
Boil  £  Ib.  of  madder  and  2  ozs.  of  logwood  chips  in  1  gal. 
of  water  and  brush  well  over  the  work  while  hot.  When 
dry,  go  over  the  whole  with  a  solution  of  pearlash— 
2  drachms  to  a  quart  of  water.  (/)  Another  cheap 
mahogany  stain  is  this :  Put  2  ozs.  of  bruised  dragon's 
blood  in  a  bottle  with  a  quart  of  turpentine,  and  stand 
in  a  warm  place  ;  shake  frequently,  and  when  dissolved 
apply  the  mixture  to  the  work,  (g)  To  stain  common 
bay  wood  to  resemble  mahogany,  wipe  over  with  red 
oil,  made  by  soaking  J  Ib.  alkanet  root  in  1  pt.  of  linseed 
oil  Whilst  still  wet  with  oil,  wipe  over  and  well  rub 
in  a  weak  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  (1  oz.  to  1  pt. 
of  water)";  afterwards  fill  in,  and  use  red  polish,  (h) 
Wipe  over  with  a  weak  walnut  stain,  and  let  this  dry, 
then  use  red  oil  and  fill  in,  and  polish  with  red  polish. 
(i)  Water  strongly  impregnated  with  common  lime, 
washing  soda,  or  carbonate  of  soda  will  give  to  common 
mahogany  tones  varying  from  light  Spanish  to  dark 
rosewood.  Any  alkali  will  darken  mahogany. 

Rosewood. — (a)  Stain  first  with  a  solution  of  1  oz.  ex- 
tract of  logwood,  1  qt.  of  water ;  put  in  the  figure  by  the 
did  of  feathers  or  camel  hair  pencils  dipped  in  copperas 
solution  or  black  stain;  or  add  a  little  bichromate  of 
potash  to  the  hot  solution  of  logwood  and  grain  with 
that  and  a  large  feather  cut  so  that  it  will  make  three  or 
four  streaks  at  once.  Rosewood  grain  can  thus  be  easily 
imitated,  (b)  First  coat  with  mahogany  stain ;  the 
figure  can  then  be  put  in  with  a  small  tuft  of  wadding 


STAUTS.  87 

or  a  sponge  dipped  in  black  stain  or  black  polish,  (c) 
i  Ib.  cam-wood,  2  ozs.  red  sanders,  4  ozs.  extract  of  log- 
wood, £  oz.  aquafortis,  1  qt.  water.  This  gives  a  bright 
red  ground.  Put  in  the  figure  with  copperas  solution  or 
black  stain,  and  tone  down  with  asphaltum  dissolved  in 
turps,  (d)  In  a  bottle  mix  J  Ib.  of  extract  of  logwood, 
1  oz.  salts  of  tartar,  and  1  pt.  of  water  ;  in  another 
bottle  put  1  Ib.  of  old  iron  in  small  pieces  and  1  pt.  of 
vinegar ;  after  standing  twenty-four  hours  it  will  be 
ready  for  use.  To  1  pt.  of  varnish,  add  J  Ib.  of  finely 
powdered  rose-pink.  Stain  the  wood  with  two  coats  of 
the  logwood,  allowing  the  first,  to  become  nearly  dry 
before  applying  the  second.  A  piece  of  rattan  cane, 
sharpened  at  one  end  to  a  wedge  shape  and  pounded  so 
as  to  separate  the  fibres,  will  form  a  good  brush.  Dip 
this  in  the  vinegar  and  with  it  form  the  grain,  after 
which  give  the  work  a  coat  of  the  varnish  and  rose- 
pink.  When  staining,  study  the  natural  wood  and 
imitate  it  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  above  materials 
skilfully  applied  to  any  common  wood  will  make  it  re- 
semble rosewood  so  nearly  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish the  difference,  (e)  Boil  1  Ib.  of  logwood  in  1  gal. 
of  water,  add  a  double  handful  of  green  walnut  shells, 
boil  the  whole  again,  strain  the  liquor,  and  add  to  it  1  pt. 
of  the  best  vinegar.  It  is  then  ready  for  use.  Apply  it 
boiling  hot,  and  when  the  wood  is  dry,  form  red  veins 
in  imitation  of  the  grain  of  rosewood  with  a  brush  dipped 
in  the  following  solution  :  Nitric  acid,  1  pt. ;  metallic 
tin,  1  oz. ;  sal-ammoniac,  1  oz.  Mix,  and  set  aside  to 
dissolve,  occasionally  shaking. 

Ebony.— (a)  The  usual  method  is  to  first  coat  the 
wood  with  a  solution  of  2  ozs.  logwood  extract,  l£  oz. 
copperas,  1  qt.  water  ;  add  a  dash  of  China  blue  or 
indigo ;  boil  in  an  iron  pot ;  apply  hot ;  give  several 
coats  ;  then  one  or  more  coats  of  vinegar,  in  i  pt.  of 
which  has  been  steeped  2  ozs.  steel  filings  or  rusty  nails. 
(b)  1  gal.  vinegar,  2  Ibs.  extract  of  logwood,  £  Ib.  green 
copperas,  £  Ib.  China  blue,  2  ozs.  nut-galls.  Boil  in  an 
iron  pot  till  dissolved,  then  add  $  pt.  iron  solution  made 


88  WOOD  FINISHING. 

by  steel  filings  and  vinegar,  (c)  8  ozs.  gall-apple,  3  ozs,. 
logwood  extract,  2  ozs.  vitriol,  2  ozs.  verdigris,  1  gal. 
water,  \  pt.  iron  solution,  (d)  $  Ib.  logwood,  3  qts. 
water,  1  oz.  pearlash.  Apply  hot.  Then  take  \  Ib.  log- 
wood, boil  in  2  qts.  water,  add  5  oz.  each  of  verdigris 
and  copperas,  and  \  pt.  iron  solution.  These  stains 
form  a  foundation  only.  The  blackness  is  intensified  by 
means  of  black  "  filling  in "  and  the  use  of  Frankfort 
black  or  gas  black  in  the  polish,  (e)  A  recipe  used  by 
furniture  manufacturers:  Logwood  chips,  8  ozs.;  copperas, 
i  oz.  Boil  the  logwood  in  1  gal.  of  water  for  half  an 
hour,  and  add  the  copperas.  Apply  hot,  giving  two  or 
three  coats.  In  varnishing  ebonised  wood,  a  little  black 
must  be  added  or  the  varnish  will  give  a  brown  shade. 
(/)  To  impart  to  pine,  or  any  similar  wood,  a  perfectly 
jet  black  surface,  either  bright  or  dull,  mix  some  black 
with  ordinary  glue-size  and  apply  to  the  wood.  The 
mixture  acts  both  as  filling  and  stain.  If  the  grain 
rises  paper  it  down.  When  smoothing  down  any  black 
wood,  use  a  little  linseed  oil  on  the  face  of  the  glass- 
paper.  For  the  polishing  medium  use  white  polish  and 
gas  black  mixed,  finishing  off  with  clear  polish  without 
the  black.  But  pine  is  not  a  good  wood  to  ebonise. 
(g)  The  French  black  stain  is  sold  by  most  veneer 
merchants,  and  gum  merchants  at  Is.  per  pint.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  use  it  before  polishing,  as  it  con- 
tains free  acid  or  salt,  which  is  unfavourable  for  polish- 
ing and  raises  the  grain.  A  suitable  black  stain  for 
wood  can  be  obtained  at  any  oilman's.  The  ebony  stains 
in  general  use  are  suitable  for  most  woods,  (h)  For 
a  very  lustrous  black,  use  black  enamel  upon  a  coat- 
ing of  flat  black  paint.  A  less  brilliant  surface  would 
probably  look  the  best,  for  which  ebonise  and  then 
French  polish. 

The  following  recipes  apply  to  darkening  or  im- 
proving the  appearance  of  inferior  woods  : — 

Fumigation. — This  is  the  best  method,  though  gener- 
ally it  is  used  only  for  oak  and  mahogany.  Articles  are 
given  an  appearance  of  age  or  enriched  in  colour  by 


STAINS.  89 

shutting  them  up  for  a  time  in  an  air -tight  cupboard 
or  boz,  on  the  bottom  of  which  have  been  placed 
dishes  of  liquor  ammonia  ;  \  pt.  is  generally  sufficient 
for  a  box  9  ft.  long,  6  ft.  high,  3  ft.  6  in.  wide.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  have  a  few  squares  of  glass  inserted,  through 
which  the  action  of  the  fumes  can  be  watched.  A  well- 
made  packing  case  will  do,  with  strong  brown  paper 
pasted  over  the  joints.  This  process  will  give  shades 
varying  from  light  olive  to  deep  brown.  Its  chief 
advantage  is  that  it  does  not  raise  the  grain. 

To  test  whether  any  kind  of  wood  can  be  darkened  by 
fumigation,  take  a  piece  freshly  planed  up  on  one  side, 
take  the  stopper  out  of  the  ammonia  bottle,  and  lay  the 
wood  over  the  mouth.  The  vapour  of  course  will  be 
strong,  and  if  the  wood  can  be  darkened  it  will  very 
soon  show  a  patch  of  altered  colour.  A  small  bit  of 
wood  will  do,  anything  large  enough  to  cover  the 
bottle's  mouth.  On  a  larger  scale  you  can  try  by  pour- 
ing some  of  the  ammonia  into  a  cup  and  covering  the 
top  in  a  similar  way. 

For  fumigation  to  be  effective,  it  is,  of  course, 
necessary  for  the  woodwork  to  be  perfectly  free  from 
grease  or  marks  of  handling.  Should  you  be  unable  to 
procure  a  case  large  enough  to  hold  the  wood,  a  small 
spare  room  may  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose  if  the 
precaution  is  taken  to  paste  paper  over  any  openings 
such  as  the  fireplace.  Fumigated  oak  is  generally 
finished  by  wax  polishing,  but  there  is  no  reason  beyond 
custom  why  it  may  not  be  French  polished  or  varnished. 
Some  kinds  of  oak  are  not  susceptible  to  ammonia 
vapour.  It  is  not  always  convenient  to  adopt  fumiga- 
tion when  a  like  result  can  be  gained  by  other  means. 

Aniline  dyes  are  useful  for  staining  in  self-colours, 
and  these  are  generally  used  for  decorative  purposes, 
such  as  inlays.  Fancy  furniture  and  knick-knacka 
possess  an  individuality  when  thus  treated,  which  is  pre- 
ferred to  imitating  any  particular  wood. 

The  following  recipes  are  in  general  use,  and  apply 
to  decorative  and  imitative  treatment : — 


90  WOOD  FINISHING. 

Satin-wood.  —  1  qt.  spirits,  3  ozs.  ground  turmeric, 
\\  oz.  gamboge. 

Rich  Purple  or  Chocolate.— %  Ib.  madder,  i  Ib.  fustic, 
\  Ib.  dragon's  blood,  1  oz.  common  soda,  dissolved  in 
3  pts.  of  spirits. 

Purple. — 1  Ib.  logwood  chips,  \  Ib.  pearlash,  2  ozs. 
indigo,  3  qts.  water.  Boil  the  logwood  till  the  full 
strength  is  gained.  Apply  hot  or  cold. 

Grey.— Maple  may  be  stained  a  green-grey  colour  by 
using  copperas  in  water  or  vinegar.  ' 

Green. — (a)  A  verdigris  dissolved  in  hot  vinegar,  or  the 
crystals  of  verdigris  in  hot  water.  A  little  indigo  may 
be  added,  and  two  or  three  applications  may  be  neces- 
sary. The  proportions  may  be  varied  to  obtain  the 
desired  tint.  But  the  aniline  dyes,  as  sold  in  packets  or 
tubes  for  a  few  pence,  will  be  found  to  meet  all  require- 
ments, if  only  a  small  quantity— say  a  quart— is  needed, 
especially  if  a  little  vinegar  is  added  as  directed.  These 
dyes  are  often  preferable,  owing  to  the  facilities  for 
getting  various  shades.  For  instance,  if  the  green  is  too 
bright,  it  is  easy  to  add  a  little  of  the  blue  or  black  dye. 
It  will  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  hotter  these 
stains  are  applied,  the  more  deeply  will  they  strike  in. 
(6)  Sponge  the  wood  over  with  a  decoction  of  turmeric, 
followed  by  one  of  Prussian  blue. 

Olive  Green. — An  olive-green  colour,  much  in  vogue 
in  America  for  small  tables,  etc.,  is  obtained  by  giving 
two  coats  of  green  stain  and  one  of  black;  or  the  work 
might  be  stained  green,  and  a  black  filling-in  used. 

Blue. — Indigo  dissolved  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
adding  a  little  whiting  to  modify,  or  washing  blue  or 
China  blue  dissolved  in  vinegar. 

Brown. — Vandyke  brown  \  Ib.,  a  pennyworth  of 
burnt  sienna,  and  1  Ib.  of  washing  soda.  Add  2  qt.  of 
water  and  boil  for  twenty  minutes.  This  stain  costs 
only  sixpence  for  2  quarts,  is  very  strong,  and  will 
stain  in  imitation  of  light  oak,  dark  oak,  or  walnut, 
according  to  the  number  of  coats  that  are  applied. 

Yellow.— (a)  A  great  deal  of  the  yellow  finish  oa 


STA/MS.  91 

wood  is  obtained  by  staining  and  sizing  at  one  operation. 
Yellow  ochre  or  lemon  chrome  is  mixed  with  the  patent 
or  glue  size.  This  is  applied  warm  with  a  brush,  the 
surplus  being  wiped  off  with  a  piece  of  rag.  When 
dry,  rub  smooth  with  fine  glasspaper,  and  finish  with 
spirit  or  oil  varnish,  (b)  Mix  raw  sienna  with  water 
and  dissolve  a  little  size  in  this  mixture.  Then,  with  a 
piece  of  sponge,  take  a  portion  of  size  and  sienna,  and 
rub  it  into  the  work  to  be  stained  until  it  is  evenly 
coated,  rubbing  it  nearly  dry  as  you  go.  When  dry, 
varnish  with  hard  drying  church  oak  varnish,  (c)  Apply 
a  decoction  of  cochineal  in  water — say,  2  ozs.  powdered 
cochineal  boiled  in  If  pt.  of  water  for  two  and  a  half  to 
three  hours.  When  this  is  quite  dry,  go  over  the  wood 
with  a  solution  made  up  of  If  pt.  of  water  in  which  1  oz. 
of  chloride  of  tin  and  £  oz.  of  tartaric  acid  have  been 
dissolved,  (d)  Another  stain  is  made  of  turmeric  dis- 
solved in  hot  water  or  in  methylated  spirit.  The  colour 
can  be  varied  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the  quantity 
of  turmeric  (e)  Half  an  ounce  of  nitric  acid  diluted 
with  l£  oz.  distilled  or  rain  water.  This  will  turn  the 
wood  yellow;  if  too  dark,  add  more  water.  (/)  The 
application  of  a  decoction  of  yellow  dyewood,  or  a 
solution  of  picric  acid,  or  aniline  yellow  dissolved  in 
varnish,  (g)  Dissolve  common  washing  soda  in  boiling 
water,  and  add  either  yellow  ochre  or  chrome  yellow, 
whichever  colour  is  preferred.  (A)  Barberry  roots  and 
twigs  boiled  in  water  will  form  a  cheap  yellow  stain  for 
wood  when  applied  hot. 

Cherry,— (a)  Mix  together,  by  stirring,  1  qt.  of  spirits 
of  turpentine,  1  pt.  of  varnish,  and  1  Ib.  of  dry  burnt 
sienna ;  apply  with  a  brush,  and  after  it  has  been  on 
about  five  minutes  wipe  it  off  with  rags.  This  stain 
takes  about  twelve  hours  to  dry.  (I)  The  following  is  a 
cheap  cherry  stain : — Take  3  ozs.  of  Bismarck  brown,  and 
dissolve  in  1  gal.  of  boiling  water.  Add  1  gill  of  vine- 
gar, to  set  the  colour  and  prevent  fading,  and  place  away 
until  cold,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  (c)  Another 
cherry  stain  is  made  by  boiling  1  Ib.  of  Spanish  annatto 


92  WOOD  FINISHING. 

in  1  gal.  of  water,  to  which  has  been  added  1  oz.  of 
concentrated  (potash)  ley.  Evaporation  over  a  gentle 
heat  will  give  darker  shades. 

Many  more  recipes  might  be  given,  but  any  reader 
acquainted  with  the  colour  scale  will  readily  perceive 
that  a  vast  range  of  colour,  or  tones  can  be  gained  by 
combination.  Quantities  are  omitted  in  several  cases, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  any  convenient  quantity 
can  be  used — if  too  strong,  it  is  easy  to  add  water ; 
and  it  is  worth  while  noting  that  curious  effects  are 
sometimes  gained  by  spreading  a  stain  of  an  entirely 
different  colour  over  another.  For  instance,  fancy 
tables  stained  a  bright  green  have  sometimes  an  over- 
glaze  of  black  or  blue. 

Whatever  the  colour  required,  it  is  a  good  plan,  and 
often  saves  much  disappointment,  if,  before  staining  the 
work,  a  few  similar  pieces  of  wood  are  first  experimented 
on  till  the  required  result  is  attained,  bearing  in  mind 
that  two  rather  weak  applications  are  more  effective 
than  one  strong  one.  The  colouring  is  more  evenly  dis- 
tributed, consequently  a  patchy  appearance  is  avoided. 

The  practical  French  polisher  does  not  aim  at 
getting  the  exact  tone  by  means  of  stains  alone.  He 
knows  how  far  red  oil,  coloured  filling  in,  dyed  polish 
and  varnish,  etc.,  will  aid  him.  The  importance  of  this 
fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  readers  ;  it 
may  save  much  vexation  when  endeavouring  to  gain  a 
particu^r  result  by  means  of  stains  alone. 

In  inlaid  work  the  veneers  are  usually  so  carefully 
selected  as  to  render  any  staining  unnecessary.  If, 
however,  it  must  be  done,  protect  the  inlay  by  first 
giving  it  two  or  three  coats  of  thin  white  hard  varnish. 
This  must  be  carefully  done  by  means  of  a  camel-hair 
pencil,  allowing  no  varnish  to  spread  on  the  portion  to 
be  stained ;  then  use  any  stain  desired.  When  dry,  do 
the  polishing  with  white  or  transparent  polish,  taking 
no  notice  of  the  varnish  on  the  inlays  till  the  first  body 
of  polish  is  on.  Should  the  varnish  then  stand  up  in 
ridges  above  the  polished  portion,  it  can  be  levelled  by 


STAINS.  93 

means  of  fine  glass-paper,  on  the  face  of  which  has  been 
applied  a  little  linseed  oil. 

The  process  required  to  stain  veneers  right  through 
is  called  dyeing,  but  when  the  article  is  made  and 
the  surface  of  the  veneer  coloured  afterwards  the  pro- 
cess is  termed  staining.  For  dyeing  it  is  advisable  to 
soak  the  veneer  at  least  half  a  day  in  clean  water; 
then  take  it  out  and  allow  a  few  hours  to  drain  before 
inserting  in  the  dye  bath ;  this  will  cause  the  dye  to 
penetrate  more  readily  and  be  more  evenly  distributed. 
For  staining  purposes  this  is  not  necessary,  as  only  the 
surface  is  acted  upon. 

Previous  to  staining  woodwork  from  which  the  paint 
has  been  removed  by  lime  process,  rub  it  down  with  glass- 
paper,  and  coat  the  lime-burnt  portion  with  vinegar  ;  and 
when  dry  give  it  a  good  coat  of  warm  glue  or  patent 
size  ;  which  will  make  the  surface  non-absorbent.  Mix 
equal  parts  of  varnish  and  turps,  and  stain  with  burnt 
amber  in  oil  to  the  desired  colour.  For  a  more  yellow 
colour  use  raw  sienna  for  staining.  Strain  before  using 
and  spread  carefully  and  evenly,  brushing  the  way  of 
the  grain.  When  dry  give  another  coating  of  stain  if 
desirable,  and  finish  with  one  or  two  coats  of  hard 
drying  church  oak  varnish.  Or  when  the  paint  has 
been  cleaned  right  off  the  wood  by  lime,  after  vinegar- 
ing  it  can  be  stained  with  water  satin ;  after  this  two 
coats  of  size  and  one  of  varnish  should  be  applied. 
Any  paint  brush  to  suit  the  extent  of  surfaces  will  do, 
providing  that  it  is  quite  free  from  dust  or  paint,  and 
that  the  hairs  don't  come  out  in  usin" 


94 


CHAPTER   XH. 

PEOCESSES   OP   VARNISHING  WOOD. 

Av  idea  more  or  less  prevalent  among  those  who  do 
not  make  the  finishing  of  woods  a  business,  is  that 
mahogany  should  generally  be  French  polished,  and  that 
other  hard  woods  should  either  be  polished  in  wax  or 
stained  and  varnished.  These  methods  have  their  advan- 
tages, though  they  are  not  always  the  best  to  follow  by 
those  who  desire  to  finish  some  piece  of  woodwork  quickly 
and  economically,  and  to  produce  a  good  result  without 
much  trouble.  For  such  work  there  is  probably  no 
better  method  than  that  of  using  shellac  varnish ;  all 
ordinary  articles  up  to  medium-priced  furniture  may  be 
finished  in  this  way,  provided  that  the  wood  is  not 
mahogany ;  and  even  then  it  may  be  employed  if  the 
operator  cannot  manage  French  polishing.  The  advan- 
tage of  using  shellac  for  a  foundation  in  finishing  all 
kinds  of  wood,  both  soft  and  hard,  is  principally  that  it 
produces  an  extremely  hard  surface  when  dry.  As  it 
dries  sufficiently  hard  in  five  or  six  hours  to  admit  of 
sand-papering,  the  work  may  be  done  expeditiously. 
Moreover,  shellac  so  effectually  seals  up  the  pores  of 
the  wood,  that  when  applied  to  the  resinous  timbers,  it 
even  prevents  the  exudation  of  resin.  Some  years  ago 
furniture  finishers  used  shellac  on  open-grained  woods 
without  the  filler,  and  this  is  done  to  some  extent  now ; 
but  experience  has  shown  that  the  use  of  paste  filler 
is  economical  both  in  time  and  material. 

To  be  successful  in  the  use  of  spirit  varnish  it  is 
desirable  that  one  should  be  somewhat  acquainted  with 
the  method  of  French  polishing,  for  this  gives,  to  a  great 
extent,  the  key  to  success.  Unlike  oil  varnish,  spirit 
varnish,  as  a  rule  does  not  flow  level  after  leaving  the 


Ps  oc ESS  MS  OP  VARNISHING   WOOD.          95 

brush.  The  beautiful  level  surface  of  oil  varnish,  as 
seen  on  carriage  bodies,  is  gained  by  allowing  the  first 
coat  to  get  perfectly  dry,  and  then  rubbing  it  down 
smooth  by  means  of  pumice  in  lump  or  in  powder 
before  applying  the  next  coat. 

The  same  principle  underlies  the  successful  use  of 
spirit  varnish.  Each  successive  coat  should  be  levelled 
by  the  aid  of  fine  glass-paper  or  the  polish-rubber ; 
and  it  will  further  tend  to  success  if,  before  any 
varnish  is  applied,  the  pores  of  the  wood  are  sealed, 
either  by  the  aid  of  a  coat  of  size  or  by  filling  in  and 
spreading  over  the  work  a  few  good  rubbers  full  of 
polish.  For  small  work  the  latter  plan  is  recommended. 
Its  object  is  twofold — it  prevents  the  absorption  of 
varnish  by  the  unclosed  pores  of  the  wood,  and  keeps 
down  the  grain,  which  otherwise  is  apt  to  rise  if  no 
precautionary  measures  are  taken. 

A  custom  is  now  gaining  in  public  favour  of  finishing 
many  of  the  small  knick-knacks  and  fancy  articles  of 
furniture  with  enamel  paints,  in  preference  to  polishing 
or  varnishing.  This  enamelling  has  much  to  recom- 
mend it,  for  apart  from  the  pleasing  variety  thus 
gained  by  the  use  of  artistic  colours,  and  the  fact  that 
the  articles  can  be  made  out  of  commoner,  and  conse- 
quently cheaper,  woods,  the  enamel  is  easy  of  applica- 
tion, thus  rendering  it  of  service  alike  in  the  finishing 
of  new  goods  and  the  renovation  of  old  goods,  in  many 
cases  giving  the  latter  a  new  lease  of  life.  The  foundation 
of  some  of  these  enamels  is  spirit  varnish,  carefully  mixed 
and  blended  with  some  dry  pigment  of  the  required 
shade.  Before  their  use  it  is  advisable  to  give  new 
work  a  coat  of  size,  but  no  other  preparation  is  needed, 
not  even  levelling  down  by  means  of  the  polish-rubber. 
Moreover,  some  goods  may  be  given  a  pleasing  finish  by 
thinning  out  the  last  coat  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
methylated  spirit  or  linseed-oil,  which  will  give  a  semi- 
lustrous  or  egg-shell  finish  that  does  not  show  up  the 
inequalities  of  the  woodwork  to  such  prominence  as  a 
bright  finish  would. 


$6  WOOD  FINISHING. 

Brushes  for  applying  spirit  varnish,  whether  clear 
or  in  the  form  of  enamels,  should  be  camel-hair  of  the 
kind  known  as  gilders'  mops  (Fig.  11).  These  are  strongly 
recommended,  as  the  majority  are  far  superior  to  those 
inserted  in  wood  handles,  whether  round  or  flat.  Those 
in  tin  should  also  be  avoided  unless  they  can  be  washed 
out  in  methylated  spirit  and  put  aside  when  not  in 
use.  For  domestic  purposes  the  varnish  should  be 
kept  in  a  large-mouthed  glass  bottle,  with  the  brush 
suspended  from  the  cork  (Fig.  12).  This  keeps  it  always 
at  hand  and  in  fit  condition.  Glass  or  earthenware 


Fig.  11.— Gilder's  Mop. 

jars  only  should  be  used.  Varnish  containing  shellac  has 
a  sort  of  corrosive  action  on  tin,  causing  the  varnish  to 
turn  dark-coloured  and  to  smell  disagreeably. 

When  only  a  small  quantity  of  varnish  is  required, 
it  is  probable  that  the  cost  of  gums,  etc.,  would  really 
cause  it  to  be  too  expensive  to  make.  Those  who  make 
a  speciality  of  varnish  making  have  the  pick  of  the 
market,  coupled  with  an  extensive  experience  of  the 
nature  of  the  materials  and  requirements  of  their 
customers,  and  they  can  turn  out  a  superior  varnish, 
and  in  most  cases  can  sell  it  at  a  less  cost  than  it  can 
be  made  at  home. 

Manufacturers  claim  that  varnish  should  be  used 
just  as  it  is  sold.  While  it  is  true  that  it  is  a  mistake 
to  add  anything  to  the  finer  grades  of  varnish,  the  poor 
qualities  are  often  too  thick  to  work  freely  without 
diluting.  If,  therefore,  it  is  necessary,  add  turpentine 
until  the  varnish  spreads  freely  with  a  fitch.  After 
varnishing,  the  work  should  be  laid  aside  for  at  least 
tventy-four  hours,  by  which  time  the  coat  will  be  hard, 


PROCESSES  OF  VARNISHING   WOOD.          97 

although  if  too  much  varnish  has  been  used,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  give  the  work  more  time  before  applying 
the  next  coat.  A  coat  of  varnish  over  one  that  is  not 
perfectly  hard  will  almost  invariably  result  in  "  sweat- 
ing," which  will  necessitate  scraping  the  work  and  re- 
commencing the  job  from  the  beginning ;  although  if 
the  sweating  is  only  of  a  mild  nature,  an  application  of 
pumice-stone  and  water  may  remove  it. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  shellac  gum— orange  and 
white.    They  may  be  bought  dissolved  in  spirits  of  wine 


Fig.  12.— Household  Varnish  Jar. 

ready  for  use,  and  also  dry  in  the  shell-like  lacs.  If 
purchased  in  the  lac,  to  prepare  for  use,  dissolve  2|  Ibs. 
of  the  white  or  2  Ibs.  of  the  orange  shellac  in  £  gal.  of 
spirits  of  wine.  The  white  shellac  costs  more  than  the 
orange,  but  it  produces  a  cleaner  and  neater  job  when 
it  is  desired  to  give  a  light  finish.  It  is  used  for  making 
transparent  polish  and  varnish,  such  as  that  used  on 
light-coloured  goods  and  inlays.  When  bought  it  is  not 
in  flakes,  like  the  orange,  but  is  in  the  form  of  white 
twisted  sticks,  and  being  kept  in  stock  under  water,  it 
G 


98  WOOD  FINISHING. 

will  naturally  be  damp.  Therefore  take  the  precaution 
to  crush  the  gum  well,  and  spread  it  out  in  a  warm  room 
to  dry  before  adding  the  spirits.  If  the  shellac  solution 
becomes  too  thick  in  consequence  of  the  evaporation  of 
the  spirit,  it  may  be  reduced  to  the  required  consistency 
by  adding  more  and  agitating  the  mixture— preferably 
in  a  warm  place.  Sometimes  methylated  spirit  is  used 
instead  of  pure  alcohol,  but  the  smell  is  so  objectionable 
to  those  at  work  with  it  that  it  is  not  generally  used  in 
first-class  work. 

The  components  of  varnish  vary,  and  the  price 
obtainable  for  the  job,  whether  common  or  best  work,  is 
an  important  factor  in  determining  the  quality.  Shellac 
generally  forms  the  basis,  and  little  else  in  the  way  of 
materials  can  be  used  when  really  good  work  has  to  be 
done.  The  addition  of  2  ozs.  of  resin  to  a  pint  of  French 
polish  makes  a  varnish  that  will  suit  for  common  work ; 
the  addition  of  gum  benzoin  instead  of  resin  will  suit 
for  best  work. 

Varnish  should  always  be  applied  in  a  warm  room 
free  from  dust.  Varnished  work  is  greatly  improved  by 
the  levelling-down  process  previously  mentioued.  For 
this  process  the  polish-rubber  is  required  to  be  soft  and 
pliable,  with  rag  covering,  and  a  flat  face  free  from 
creases.  When  a  coat  of  varnish  is  half  dry— say,  in 
ten  minutes— rub  lightly  in  the  way  usual  when  French 
polishing  with  the  rubber  charged  with  half  polish  and 
half  spirits,  adding  more  spirits  as  required.  It  will 
further  tend  to  improve  if,  when  rubbing  down  the  last 
coat,  a  few  drops  of  glaze  are  added  to  the  rubber. 

When  stained  and  thoroughly  dry,  the  work  is  in  a 
condition  to  receive  the  first  coat  of  varnish.  It  is  of 
importance  that  the  work  shall  be  in  a  perfectly  dry 
condition,  and  this  can  readily  be  ascertained  by  noticing 
the  uniformly  dead  appearance  it  presents,  especially  at 
the  corners  and  angles.  All  woods  may  have  shellac  for 
a  first  coat  of  varnish.  Birch,  maple,  and  poplar  may 
readily  be  stained  to  imitate  cherry,  and  require  no 
filling  ;  but  oak,  ash,  walnut,  etc.,  are  best  treated  witlj 


PROCESSES  OF  VARNISHING   WOOD.          99 

a  filler  to  close  the  pores  of  the  wood.  When  all  the 
filler  has  been  thoroughly  removed,  clean  the  work 
down  with  cotton-waste,  and  it  is  then  ready  to  receive 
the  first  coat  of  shellac.  Where  filling  is  not  used, 
the  shellac  is  applied  after  the  work  is  sand-papered 
and  stained. 

The  application  of  the  shellac  is  often  difficult  to  the 
beginner,  although  to  the  experienced  hand  it  is  perhaps 
the  most  pleasant  part  of  the  job,  because  its  results  are 
always  the  same.  The  object  is  to  apply  the  shellac 
uniformly  over  the  surface  ;  and  this  to  an  inexperienced 
hand  is  not  easy,  because  the  spirit  evaporates  quickly, 
and  he  is  likely  to  go  over  the  same  ground  twice,  pro- 
ducing objectionable  laps  and  unevenness. 

If  the  work  consists  of  panelling,  the  panels  should 
be  done  first  and  the  stiles  and  rails  afterwards,  finish- 
ing with  the  mouldings.  The  size  of  brushes  used  will 
depend  upon  the  class  of  work  under  treatment,  but 
comparatively  small  brushes  will  answer  best  in  most 
cases.  It  is  of  importance  to  remember  that  the  shellac 
must  always  be  laid  on  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and 
when  the  brush  is  handled  quickly  and  in  a  workmanlike 
manner  the  difficulties  will  not  be  great.  It  should  also 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  warmer  a  room  is  the  quicker 
will  the  spirit  evaporate  and  the  coating  of  shellac  harden. 

After  the  coat  of  shellac  has  been  on,  say,  six  hours, 
it  should  be  glass-papered. to  render  the  surf  ace  perfectly 
level.  Use  a  thin  glass-paper  of  a  fine  grade ;  divide  a 
sheet  into  four  equal  parts,  and  place  the  ends  of  a  piece 
over  the  little  finger  and  thumb.  Rub  fairly  hard,  but 
go  very  lightly  over  edges  and  mouldings,  taking  care  not 
to  cut  through  the  varnish  on  protruding  parts  and 
edges.  To  reach  corners,  fold  a  piece  of  glass-paper 
into  a  triangle,  moistening  the  paper  if  necessary.  New 
glass-paper  often  scratches  unevenly,  and  it  is  advisable 
to  rub  two  pieces  together  to  remove  grit.  Horsehair 
cloth  may  be  used  in  very  fine  work  instead  of  glass- 
paper.  This  can  be  obtained  at  any  furniture  repairing 
shop.  Old  cloth  answers,  and  the  hair  side  is  used. 


too  WOOD  FINISHING. 

Having  been  thoroughly  dusted  off,  the  work  is  now 
ready  for  a  second  coat  of  shellac.  This  will  be  applied 
exactly  in  the  same  way  as  the  first,  and  then,  after 
glass-papering,  it  will  be  ready  to  receive  the  first  coat 
of  varnish.  The  varnishing  done  on  this  foundation 
may  be  of  any  quality,  from  cheap  one-coat  work  up  to 
a  piano  finish.  If  one  coat  only  is  to  be  used,  a  varnish 
should  be  employed  that  will  dry  with  a  good  gloss. 
As  a  rule,  two  coats  of  varnish  will  be  required,  and 
the  method  of  application  will  probably  be  the  same 
whatever  number  of  coats  are  given. 

To  apply  varnish  properly  requires  a  good  deal  of 
practice,  and  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  rules  that 
shall  govern  the  process.  The  inexperienced  almost 
invariably  apply  too  much  varnish,  the  inevitable  result 
being  that  the  work  cracks— an  effect  that  destroys  all 
pretensions  to  a  good  job.  The  following  are  given 
merely  as  hints  :  Dip  the  brush  well  into  the  varnish 
and  lay  it  on  across  the  grain,  commencing  at  the  least 
exposed  portions  of  the  work,  so  that  in  case  it  has  to 
be  handled  the  more  prominent  parts  may  not  be  marred. 
The  varnish  can  should  be  provided  with  a  wire  or  bar 
soldered  across  the  middle  of  the  mouth.  Dip  the  brush 
as  may  be  required,  wipe  it  off  on  this  bar,  and  lay  off  on 
the  work  as  before.  Stab  the  brush  well  into  angles  and 
corners.  When  the  whole  surface  has  been  roughly 
covered,  wipe  the  brush  again  on  the  bar,  removing  all 
the  varnish  possible ;  then  lay  off  the  work  with  the 
grain  of  the  wood,  draw  the  brush  backwards  and 
forwards,  and  wipe  it  again  if  necessary.  Repeat  this 
operation  until  a  perfectly  level  surface  is  obtained.  If 
there  are  grooves  or  depressions  in  the  work  they  will 
retain  more  varnish  than  the  plain  surface,  and  to 
prevent  the  surplus  running  down,  the  brush  must  be 
stabbed  in  and  drawn  out  towards  the  main  surface. 
It  will  be  understood  that  the  last  coat  of  varnish 
introduced  will  make  a  very  good  job  if  the  underneath 
coats  of  varnish  and  shellac  respectively  have  beeo 
treated  carefully  in  the  manner  described. 


PROCESSES  OF  VARNISHING   WOOD.        101 

The  process  of  rubbing  down  with  pumice-stone  is 
only  applied  when  an  extra  fine  finish  is  required,  and 
in  that  case  after  the  surface  has  been  cleaned  off  the 
final  operation  of  cleaning  the  work  is  proceeded  with 
Dip  a  small  paint-brush  in  rubbing- oil  thinned  down  with 
either  petroleum  or  benzine  (the  finest  grades  obtainable 
should  be  used),  and  lightly  paint  over  any  mouldings, 
carvings,  etc.  Then  go  over  the  surface  with  a  smal] 
cotton  rag  dipped  in  the  oil,  and  rub  off  all  with  a 
dry  rag,  using  also  a  clean  brush  to  clean  out  the  oi? 
from  the  lines,  carvings,  etc. ;  and  take  care  that  all  the 
oil  is  removed.  Then  take  a  soft  rag  moistened  with 
alcohol,  and  go  lightly  over  the  whole  work.  As  varnish 
will  dissolve  in  alcohol,  care  must  be  taken  to  do  this 
very  lightly  and  quickly. 

Where  a  fine  finish  is  required,  the  best  results  are 
obtained  by  rubbing  down  each  successive  coat  of  var- 
nish as  it  dries,  and  in  that  case  a  varnish  that  admits  of 
rubbing  must  be  used.  When  the  first  coat  is  thoroughly 
hard,  take  a  piece  of  hair-cloth  or  worn  sand-paper  and 
lightly  rub  down  the  surface.  Eub  with  the  grain  of 
the  wood,  and  take  care  not  to  tear  the  varnish  nor 
wear  it  through.  Then  clean  the  surface  off  thoroughly 
with  the  dusting-brush,  and  proceed  to  the  second  coat. 
Apply  the  second  somewhat  more  heavily  than  the  first 
coat,  but  take  great  care  not  to  work  up  the  under  coat. 
The  second  coat  will  require  thirty  hours  before  a  third 
is  applied.'  If  more  than  three  coats  are  to  be  given,  the 
thickness  of  each  coat  must  be  reduced  accordingly. 
Between  each  coat  of  varnish  a  rubbing  should  be 
given  as  described,  and  for  the  best  class  of  work  the 
final  coat  may  also  be  rubbed,  but  in  a  different 
manner.  For  this  purpose  a  cotton  or  woollen  rag 
is  used,  or  a  piece  of  felt.  This  is  dipped  into  finely- 
powdered  pumice-stone,  and  the  rubbing  is  done  lightly 
backwards  and  forwards  with  the  grain  of  the  wood. 
The  most  convenient  plan  is  to  keep  the  powdered 
pumice-stone  in  a  small  can  or  saucer  with  water  added, 
and  to  pass  the  hand  over  the  work  during  its  progress, 


102  WOOD  FINISHING. 

to  ascertain  whether  the  surface  is  perfectly  smooth. 
Finally,  the  surface  is  thoroughly  cleaned  off  with 
sponge  and  water,  and  then  well  rubbed  down  with 
a  chamois  leather. 

Some  classes  of  work  need  the  final  coats  of  varnish 
to  be  polished.  This  is  done  as  follows  : — Take  a  little 
powdered  rotten-stone  on  a  damp  rag,  and  rub  the  work 
lightly  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  backwards  and  for- 
wards, adding  a  little  water  if  necessary,  continuing  the 
rubbing  until  the  surface  is  quite  dry.  The  varnish  will 
present  a  very  lustrous  appearance,  and  then  the  work 
may  be  cleaned  off  with  petroleum.  Drop  ivory  black 
may  be  used  with  advantage  instead  of  rotten-stone. 
The  work  is  often  polished  with  the  following  wash 
or  its  equivalent :  raw  linseed  oil  1  qt.,  vinegar  1  pt., 
alcohol  1  pt.,  liquor  ammonia  \  pt 

Spirit  varnishes  are  the  only  ones  which  properly 
admit  of  being  coloured.  Often  the  resins  themselves 
will  give  the  varnish  a  natural  tint  of  yellow,  brown,  or 
red ;  in  fact,  pure  colourless  resin  varnishes  are  only 
obtainable  by  carefully  selecting  the  materials  for  solu- 
tions, or  by  subjecting  them  to  preliminary  bleaching. 
Of  the  resins  which  are  most  frequently  used  to 
colour  varnishes,  dragon's  blood  and  gamboge  are  the 
principal.  Dyewood  extracts  also  play  a  considerable 
part  in  the  colouring  of  varnishes,  and  aniline  dyes  are 
still  more  largely  used.  When  shellac  varnishes  are 
intended  to  be  coloured  with  aniline,  bleached  lac  only 
should  be  employed.  The  aniline  colour  dissolved  in 
alcohol  is  added  to  the  varnish  after  the  latter  has  been 
prepared,  and  the  product  should  be  warmed  if  necessary 
to  expel  any  excess  of  alcohol  introduced  with  the  aniline. 
Picric  acid  gives  a  beautiful  yellow  colour,  which  may 
be  turned  into  a  fine  green  by  the  addition  of  iodine 
green.  The  two  colouring  materials  in  this  case  should 
be  added  as  separate  solutions.  A  good  blue  colour  may 
be  obtained  with  prussiate  of  iron  free  from  alumina 
and  a  green  with  acetate  of  copper.  A  mixture  of 
prussiate  of  iron  with  gamboge  gives  several  good  shades 


PROCESSES  OF  VARNISHING   WOOD.        103 

of  green,  and  with  carmine  or  dragon's  blood  a  violet. 
Coloured  varnishes  should  be  applied  very  quickly,  in 
order  to  give  a  uniform  tint.  For  application  to  polished 
surfaces,  such  as  glass,  wood,  china,  or  metal,  the  ad- 
dition of  £  per  cent,  of  borax  is  an  advantage. 

Where  varnishes  and  lacquers  are  required  to  be 
made  by  the  aid  of  heat,  or  where  large  quantities  are 
wanted,  special  plant  and  arrangements  are  necessary, 
but  these  cannot  be  treated  of  here.  The  following 
remarks  apply  to  those  varnishes  and  lacquers  which  can 
be  made  without  the  aid  of  heat,  and  where  the  quan- 
tity to  be  made  at  a  time  does  not  exceed  the  require- 
ments of  a  moderate  consumption.  In  making  varnishes 
and  lacquers  of  all  kinds,  care  should  be  taken  in  every 
case  to  see  that  the  spirit  is  of  full  strength,  the  resins 
free  from  moisture  and  all  foreign  matter ;  and  where 
the  finer  sorts  of  varnishes  are  to  be  made,  to  see,  also, 
that  the  resins  are  all  picked.  The  resins  should  be 
small  and,  if  possible,  coarsely  powdered,  as  large 
pieces  take  a  long  time  to  dissolve ;  while  small  pieces 
or  powder  get  into  a  cohesive  mass,  in  which  state  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  effect  solution. 

To  effect  speedy  solution  of  the  resins  various  plans 
are  resorted  to,  such  as  constant  agitation,  with  occa- 
sional immersion  in  hot  water  when  the  varnish  or 
lacquer  is  being  made  in  small  quantity  in  a  glass  bottle, 
or  by  rolling  jars  or  tins  when  the  varnish  is  being  made 
in  quantities  of  two  or  three  gallons,  or  by  using  casks 
turned  by  mechanical  means  where  the  required  quan- 
tity is  larger  still.  It  may  be  convenient  in  the  case  of 
turpentine  varnishes,  which  do  not  evaporate  so  quickly, 
to  make  them  in  wide-mouthed  jars,  and  simply  stir 
them  frequently  with  a  stick.  If  the  stirring  rod  in  this 
case  is  provided  with  cross-bars  like  the  prongs  of  a 
dinner  fork,  the  mass  is  more  effectively  broken  up, 
and  solution  consequently  hastened.  It  is  almost  un- 
necessary to  say  that  the  utmost  care  and  clean- 
liness should  be  exercised  in  the  making  of  varnishes, 
as  the  least  dust  or  moisture  will  affect  their  quality. 


ic4  WOOD  FINISHING 

It  may  be  difficult  to  get  methylated  spirit  of  a 
strength  ranging  from  90  to  95  per  cent.,  and  pure  alcohol 
is  very  expensive,  so  it  may  be  well  here  to  point  out 
a  ready  plan  for  rectifying  commercial  methylated  spirit 
in  small  quantity.  Take  a  large  bladder,  which  has  been 
thoroughly  freed  from  all  fatty  tissue  both  internally 
and  externally,  and  fill  it  with  methylated  spirit  60  over 
proof,  and  hang  it  in  a  warm  place.  The  water  will 
ooze  through  the  bladder  and  the  spirit  left  inside  will 
be  correspondingly  strengthened. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

VARNISHES. 

SPIRIT  varnishes  are  classified  into  groups  as  follows : 
—(a)  Alcohol  and  sandarach ;  (6)  alcohol  and  mastic  : 
(c)  alcohol  and  copal ;  (d)  alcohol  and  amber ;  (e)  alcohol 
and  shellac  ;  (/)  alcohol  and  mixed  resins. 

These  varnishes  are  very  quick-drying,  only  less 
so  than  ether  varnishes.  They  may  be  made  to  vary 
greatly  in  quality  by  the  addition  of  essential  oils, 
and  are  mostly  colourless  or  only  very  slightly  coloured. 
The  addition  of  essential  oils  renders  the  varnishes 
more  durable  and  elastic  and  less  liable  to  crack 
through  exposure  to  the  air.  These  varnishes  are 
largely  employed  in  the  bookbinding,  leather  and 
paper  trades,  and  for  certain  kinds  of  metal-work, 
as  well  as  for  wood  varnishes.  In  addition  to  sand- 
arach, mastic,  copal,  amber,  and  shellac,  other  resins 
such  as  anime,  elemi,  benzoin,  gamboge,  and  dragon's 
blood  are  frequently  used  in  the  preparation  of  these 
varnishes,  the  two  latter  specially  as  colourants,  and 
camphor  also  is  frequently  incorporated. 

Varnishes  composed  of  spirit  and  shellac  are  among 
the  oldest.  Their  natural  red  and  yellow  tints  caused 
these  preparations  to  become  popular  with  furniture 
makers,  and  the  introduction  of  bleached  shellac 
completed  the  requirements  of  the  trade  by  supply- 
ing a  colourless  preparation.  Though  shellac  cannot 
be  altogether  dissolved  in  the  spirits  employed,  yet  a 
perfectly  clear  solution  may  generally  be  obtained  by 
adding  a  little  powdered  lime  and  allowing  it  to 
settle.  It  then  separates  into  tn.v  layers,  the  upper 
one  (about  three-fourths  of  the  whole)  being  perfectly 
clear,  and  of  the  cloudy  residue  a  part  may  also  be 


io6  WOOD 

rendered  fit  for  use  by  filtration.  A  little  petroleum 
or  benzine  may  be  used  for  clearing  the  solution,  but 
in  that  case  the  cloudy  layer  rises  to  the  surface,  and 
none  of  it  is  recoverable  by  filtration. 

Shellac  may  be  dissolved  with  borax  if  3  parts  of 
shellac  and  1  of  borax  are  added  to  25  parts  of  water, 
and  the  whole  is  moderately  heated.  The  solution 
thus  obtained  is  in  itself  an  excellent  varnish.  It 
may  be  incorporated  with  oil  colours  by  rubbing  out 
these  with  a  little  oil,  and  then  mixing  with  the 
varnish.  The  mixture  dries  within  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  and  should  be  prepared  only  as  required. 

Brown  spirit  varnish  is  made  of  shellac,  2  Ibs.;  gum 
sandarach,  \  Ib. ;  methylated  spirit  (60  over-proof), 

1  gal.    Shake  until 'the  gums  are  dissolved,  and  add 
warmed  Venice  turpentine,  J  Ib.    Shake  until  thoroughly 
mixed,  and  afterwards  strain.    It  should  be  kept  for 
a  week  or  ten  days  previous  to  use. 

Another   spirit  varnish  is  made  of  4  ozs.   shellac; 

2  ozs.  resin  ;  \  oz.  gum  benzoin ;  £  oz.  gum  thus  ;  1  pt. 
methylated  spirits.    Crush  the  gums,  pour  in  the  spirits, 
and  set  aside  in  a  warm  place,  frequently  shaking  the 
bottle.    Carefully  strain  before  using,  and  apply  with  a 
camel-hair  brush. 

White  furniture  varnish  is  made  of  bleached  shellac, 
powdered,  2  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pt.  Dissolve  the  shellac  in 
about  two-thirds  of  the  spirit,  filter,  then  add  first  one- 
third  of  the  remaining  spirit,  and  afterwards  dilute  with 
the  remainder.  A  reddish  varnish  may  be  made  in  the 
same  manner  by  using  orange  instead  of  bleached  lac, 
and  a  still  darker  one  by  the  use  of  a  very  dark  lac,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  extract  of  sandal- wood. 

Black  varnish  is  made  of  thin  orange  shellac,  3  ozs. ; 
spirit,  1  pint ;  Venice  turpentine  (previously  liquefied), 
|  oz.  Dissolve  on  water-bath,  then  add  about  \  oz. 
lamp-black. 

Dark  varnish  is  made  of  thin  orange  shellac,  3  ozs. ; 
Venice  turpentine,  £  oz. ;  spirit,  1  pt  Dissolve  the  lac 
and  turpentine  in  the  alcohol  on  the  water-bath. 


VARNISHES.  107 

The  best  white  hard  spirit  varnish  is  made  of  fine 
picked  gum  eandarach,  2  Ibs.  Dissolve  in  methylated 
spirit,  1  gal.  Strain  and  add  finest  pale  turpentine 
varnish,  1  Ib.  Another  dearer  kind  is  made  of  gum 
mastic,  2J  Ibs.;  stronger  spirit,  1  gal.  Dissolve,  and  add 
1  Ib.  finest  pale  turpentine  varnish. 

Ether  varnishes  are  classified  into  groups  as  follows  : 
—(a)  With  pure  ether  basis  ;  (6)  with  mixed  basis ; 
(c)  with  resin,  chloroform,  and  benzine  basis.  These 
varnishes  are  generally  of  an  exceedingly  fluid  character. 
They  dry  quickly,  but  they  are  not  durable,  and  their 
application  is  therefore  limited  to  objects  which  are 
not  exposed  to  frequent  cleaning  or  rubbing.  The 
volatility  of  the  solvents  renders  it  necessary  to  keep 
ether  varnishes  in  vessels  very  carefully  closed.  It  is 
an  advantage  to  give  the  articles  to  which  these 
varnishes  are  to  be  applied  a  preliminary  rubbing  with 
oil  of  lavender  or  rosemary,  after  which  they  should  be 
allowed  to  dry  well  before  varnishing.  The  following  is 
a  recipe  for  an  ether  varnish. 

Take  of  finely  powdered  copal,  3|  ozs.;  ether  (sp. 
gr.  0725),  1  pt.  Dissolve  the  copal  in  the  ether  in  a 
stoppered  bottle,  constantly  shaking ;  if  the  copal  is 
not  entirely  dissolved  add  a  little  more  ether.  Allow 
the  solution  to  stand  and  settle,  then  decant  into  another 
bottle,  and  keep  carefully  stoppered. 

A  more  quickly-drying  varnish,  specially  suitable 
for  small  wooden  articles,  maps,  etc.,  may  be  made  by 
dissolving  as  explained  above  : — Finely  powdered  soft 
dammar,  5  ozs.  ;  in  ether  (sp.  gr.  0'725),  1  pt. 

A  good  varnish  having  a  mixed  ether  solvent  is 
made  as  follows : — Powdered  mastic,  sandarach,  and 
glass,  of  each  2  ozs. ;  ether  (sp.  gr.  0725),  5  pint ;  alcohol, 
$  pint;  lavender  oil,  2  ozs.  Mix  the  alcohol  and  the 
ether,  and  then  add  the  resins  and  glass ;  shake  in 
stoppered  bottle,  allow  to  settle,  and  decant.  The 
lavender  to  be  added  afterwards. 

Another  method  of  making  ether  varnishes  is  as 
follows : — Select  the  palest  lumps  of  copal  gum,  crush 


to8  WOOD  FINISHING. 

them  into  small  pieces  and  tie  in  a  bag  of  fine  muslin. 
Suspend  this  in  a  bottle  of  sulphuric  ether,  and  the  copal 
gum  will  gradually  ooze  out  into  the  ether.  When  the 
gum  has  been  digested,  let  the  bag  drain  and  then  be  put 
into  another  bottle  of  ether,  which  will  dissolve  all  the 
available  gum.  Plenty  of  the  gum  should  be  used,  so 
that  the  liquid  will  form  a  thick  varnish.  To  make  the 
varnish  dry  more  slowly,  and  render  it  more  elastic  add 
any  slow-drying  essential  oil,  as  oil  of  caraway,  oil  of 
anise,  poppy,  or  sweet  almonds  ;  these  oils  are  colourless 
in  small  quantities.  Should  it  dry  too  slowly,  add  more 
ether  and  mix  thoroughly. 

Varnish  for  gilded  wood  is  made  of  sandarach, 
1|  oz.;  mastic  in  tears,  1$  oz.  ;  elemi,  1  oz.;  spirit,  1  pt. 
The  powdered  resins  are  placed  in  a  still  with  the 
alcohol  and  boiled  for  two  hours.  The  product  of  dis- 
tillation, about  £  pt.,  is  collected.  One  third  of  this  is 
replaced  in  the  still  and  boiled  for  two  hours  more,  after 
this  the  remaining  two-thirds  are  placed  in  the  still 
and  similarly  treated.  The  varnish  thus  obtained  is 
very  useful  for  protecting  gilding,  and  allows  the  articles 
treated  with  it  to  be  washed  without  injurious  effect. 
The  following  are  some  useful  formulae  of  other  varnishes 
for  the  same  purpose  made  of  powdered  resins,  dissolved 
in  alcohol  heated  on  a  water-bath,  turpentine  being  added 
if  necessary : — (1)  Mastic  in  tears,  3  ozs. ;  sandarach 
2  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pt.  (2)  Mastic  in  tears,  1J  ozs. ;  sanda- 
rach, 1|  oz. ;  shellac,  1  oz. ;  colophony,  1  oz. ;  spirit,  1  pt. 
A  very  hard  and  slow-drying  varnish  is  made  of : 
Mastic  in  tears,  2  ozs. ;  sandarach,  2  ozs. ;  copal,  1  oz. ; 
spirit,  1  pt  ;  spike  oil,  1J  oz.  All  these  ingredients 
may  be  more  or  less  varied.  The  varnishes  may 
be  perfumed  with  a  few  drops  of  any  aromatic 
balsam. 

Amber  varnishes  are  usually  prepared  by  first  fusing 
the  amber,  then  adding  the  other  resins,  next  pouring 
the  clarified  linseed  oil  on  the  dissolved  mass,  and  then 
diluting  it  with  turpentine.  Another  way  is  to  allow 
the  amber  to  cool  after  dissolving  and  to  repowder  it 


VARNISHES, 


109 


and  dissolve  in  the  water-bath,  together  with  the  other 
resins  in  the  oils.  By  exposing  amber  varnish  to  the 
sunlight  the  quality  is  improved. 

Sandarach  varnish  is  used  for  articles  subject  to  fric- 
tion and  hard  use,  and  may  be  applied  to  wood  and  even 
metals.  The  following  formulae  will  be  found  useful  : — 
(1)  Gum  sandarach,  8  ozs.;  pounded  mastic,  2  ozs.;  alcohol, 

1  qt. ;  turpentine,  4  ozs. ;  pounded  glass,  4  ozs.     Mix  and 
dissolve  with  frequent  agitation.     (2)  Pounded  copal  of 
an  amber  colour  once  liquefied,  3  oz. ;  gum  sandarach, 
6  ozs.;  mastic  cleaned,  3  ozs. ;  clear  turpentine,  2J  ozs. ; 
pounded  glass,  4  ozs. ;  pure  alcohol,  1  qt.     Mix   and 
dissolve  with  frequent  agitation. 

Bright  varnish  for  toys  and  small  wooden  articles  is 
made  as  follows  : — Sandarach,  3  ozs.  ;  copal,  l£  oz. ; 
mastic,  1J  oz. ;  best  turpentine,  i  pt. ;  powdered  glass, 

2  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pt.    Dissolve  on  water-bath.    A  more 
durable  bright  varnish,  for  articles  which  have  to  stand 
wear,  is  prepared  by  dissolving  on  a  water-bath  : — Picked 
sandarach,  4£  ozs. ;  mastic  in  tears,  1  oz. ;  powdered  glass, 
2  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pint.    The  varnish  may  be  rendered  more 
fluid  by  the  addition  of  8  ozs.  of  liquid  Venice  turpentine, 
after  which  it  should  be  filtered.    A  very  bright  and 
quickly-drying  varnish  is  made  of  sandarach,   If  oz. ; 
mastic  in  tears,  If  oz.  ;  copal,  1  oz. ;   oil  of  lavender, 
1  oz. ;  spirit,  1  pt.     Slightly  damp  the  copal  with  oil 
of  lavender  and  melt  it  in  a  well-glazed  vessel  on  a  slow 
fire,  then  run  on  a  cold  marble  slab  and  powder.    Add 
this  powder  to  the  powdered  sandarach  and  mastic  and 
dissolve  on  a  water-bath  in  the  alcohol.    After  solution 
add  the  lavender  oil  under  stirring. 

Perfumed  varnishes  are  sometimes  used,  especially  for 
imitation  Chinese  and  Oriental  articles.  The  following 
are  formulae  for  such  preparations  :— Dissolve  on  the 
water-bath  powdered  1  Ib.  sticklac,  £  Ib.  of  picked 
benzoin,  J  Ib.  of  storax,  and  £  Ib.  of  sandarach  in  5  pts. 
of  spirit.  Or  prepare  in  the  same  way  : — Shellac,  9  ozs. ; 
mastic  in  tears,  4£  ozs.  ;  picked  benzoin,  2J  ozs. ;  san- 
darach, 4£  ozs. ;  elemi,  \  oz. ;  myrrh,  i  oz. ;  amber,  i  oz. ; 


no  WOOD  FINISHING. 

with  3  pts.  of  spirit ;  and  afterwards  add,  undei  stirring, 
£  oz.  of  copaiba  balsam,  and  filter. 

Sealing-wax  varnish  foi  coating  corks,  etc.,  is  made  of 
good  red  sealing-wax,  3  Ibs. ;  shellac,  1  Ib.  Dissolve  by 
agitation  in  1  gal.  methylated  spirit.  Black  varnish  may 
be  made  in  the  same  way,  and  using  the  same  pro- 
portions, substituting  black  for  red  sealing-wax. 

Colourless  varnish  is  made  by  dissolving  with  gentle 
heat  8  ozs.  gum  sandarach  and  2  ozs.  Venice  turpentine  in 
32  ozs.  alcohol.  A  harder  varnish  of  a  reddish  tint  is 
made  by  using  5  ozs.  shellac  and  1  oz.  turpentine  dis- 
solved in  32  ozs.  alcohol. 

White  varnish  for  maps,  etc.,  is  made  of  Canada 
balsam  dissolved  with  a  little  less  Venice  turpentine 
and  then  strained. 

Clear  varnishes  are  made  as  follows,  the  parts 
being  taken  by  weight :— (1)  Linseed  oil,  50  parts  ; 
white  lead,  2  parts ;  litharge,  2  parts ;  umber,  1  part 
Add  a  little  vermilion.  (2)  Linseed  oil,  100  parts ; 
water;  50  parts  ;  litharge,  10  parts ;  neutral  acetate 
of  lead,  1  part.  Boil  six  or  seven  hours. 

Essential  oil  varnishes  are  classified  into  groups  as 
follows  : — (a)  Turpentine  and  mastic  ;  (6)  turpentine 
and  sandarach;  (c)  turpentine  and  copal;  (dj  turpen- 
tine and  dammar  ;  (e)  turpentine  and  various  resins 
or  mordants ;  (/)  mixed  essential  oils  and  resin. 
These  differ  in  many  important  particulars  from  other 
classes  of  varnishes.  The  solvent  does  not  entirely 
disappear  during  the  drying  processes  of  the  varnish, 
but  becomes  incorporated  in  the  hard  surface  layer. 
In  practice  the  only  essential  oils  used  are  turpentine, 
lavender,  and  rosemary,  the  two  latter  only  in  a  minor 
degree.  Turpentine  to  be  used  in  varnish -making 
should  always  be  well  rectified  and  absolutely  colour- 
less. The  boiling  point  of  the  oil  is  160°  C.,  so  the 
manufacture  of  varnishes  in  which  it  forms  an  in- 
gredient cannot  be  carried  on  at  a  very  high  tempera- 
ture. Essential  oil  varnishes  are  notable  for  their 
fluidity,  their  brilliancy,  and  the  quickness  with  which 


VARNISHES.  1 1 1 

they  dry.  Turpentine  is  by  far  the  best  vehicle  for 
dissolving  resins.  The  incorporation  of  a  fatty  oil 
into  a  turpentine  varnish  causes  it  to  dry  more  slowly, 
while  it  increases  the  hardness.  Varnishes  made  with 
essential  oil  only  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  indoor 
work  in  house-painting,  and  for  coating  articles  not 
exposed  to  the  open  air,  or  which  do  not  require 
much  handling  or  cleaning.  Varnishes  made  with  a 
mixture  of  essential  and  fixed  oils  are  mostly  em- 
ployed for  outdoor  work  or  other  purposes  where 
there  is  generally  much  wear  and  friction.  In  pre- 
paring this  class  of  varnishes,  the  resins  may  be 
dissolved  in  cold  oil,  but,  as  this  is  a  slow  process, 
they  are  generally  dissolved  separately  under  the 
influence  of  heat,  and  should  be  allowed  to  cool. 
The  oil  is  then  added  slowly,  constantly  stirring. 
The  mixture  is  left  to  settle  and  then  filtered. 

Fat  varnishes  are  slower  in  drying  than  many 
others,  but  they  are  the  most  durable  and  hardest 
of  any.  They  are  almost  always  used  for  outdoor 
and  other  work  requiring  hard  wear.  In  fat  varnishes 
almost  all  resins  used  in  varnish-making  can  be  in- 
corporated, but  copal  and  amber  are  those  generally 
used.  The  choice  of  the  oil  used  as  a  solvent  is  of 
prime  importance.  It  should  have  been  extracted 
from  properly-matured  seed,  cold-drawn  oil  being 
generally  better  than  that  obtained  by  heat.  It 
should  be  thoroughly  purified,  limpid,  of  a  pale 
colour,  and  free  from  pungent  odour.  It  is  an  ad- 
vantage to  use  oil  which  has  had  time  to  settle 
properly,  and  has  been  carefully  drawn  from  the 
receptacles  in  which  it  was  stored. 

Fat  oil  varnishes  are  classified  in  groups  as  follows  : 
— (a)  Fixed  oils  and  lead  or  zinc  salts ;  (b)  fixed  oils 
and  manganese  salts ;  (c)  fixed  oils  and  acids  ;  (d)  fixed 
oils  and  copal ;  (e)  fixed  oils  and  amber ;  (/)  composite 
fixed  oil  varnishes. 

Linseed  oil  is  the  principal  fatty  oil  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  oil  varnishes.  Varnish  prepared 


ii3  WOOD  FINISHING. 

with  it  as  the  base  should  be  as  clear  as  water,  of  a 
pale  straw  colour,  and  of  about  G'9575  sp.  gr.  It 
should,  in  drying,  produce  an  even,  colourless,  and 
translucent  coat.  To  cause  the  oil  to  dry  it  must  be 
treated  with  metallic  salts,  preferably  of  lead,  tin,  or 
zinc.  The  metals  are  usually  first  granulated,  zinc 
being  used  in  the  form  of  the  sulphate  of  commerce, 
and  should  be  calcined  before  use.  The  boiling  of  the 
metallic  salts  with  the  oil  is  done  in  a  copper  vessel  in 
the  proportion  of  31  parts  of  oil  to  1  each  of  tin  and 
lead,  and  is  continued  until  the  salts  are  completely 
dissolved.  The  boiler  is  then  taken  from  the  fire  and  2 
parts  of  calcined  and  powdered  zinc  are  added  under 
vigorous  stirring,  producing  effervescence.  When  this 
has  subsided  the  mixture  is  again  boiled  for  about  half 
an  hour,  until  bubbles  cease.  The  varnish  is  then  left  to 
settle,  and  after  twenty-four  hours  should  b<*,  filtered 
through  cloth.  It  is  then  bottled  in  vessels  secured  by 
a  stopper  sealed  with  lead,  and  exposed  to  the  sun  for 
seven  or  eight  days  to  render  it  limpid.  Litharge, 
minium,  and  white  lead  are  also  often  used  as  oil  driers, 
either  combined 'or  separately.  The  boiling  is  done  on  a 
naked  fire  or  on  the  water-bath.  Before  boiling,  a  volume 
of  water  equal  to  that  of  the  oil  should  be  added  to  it  to 
diminish  the  risk  of  taking  fire,  the  metallic  salts  shouldv 
in  this  case,  be  placed  in  a  copper-wire  receptacle  sus- 
pended in  the  upper  layer  of  the  liquid.  The  ordinary 
water-bath  does  not  give  a  sufficiently  high  temperature 
for  boiling  the  oil,  but  by  using  water  saturated  with 
sulphate  of  lime  its  boiling  point  may  be  raised.  Take 
by  weight :  Linseed  oil,  30  parts ;  water,  12  parts ; 
litharge,  3  parts  :  white  lead,  2  parts  ;  umber,  1  part. 
Place  the  minerals  in  a  cloth  bag,  suspend  them  in  the 
oil,  and  boil  until  the  water  has  diminished  by  one- 
eighth  of  its  volume.  Or  take  linseed  oil,  100  parts ; 
litharge,  9  parts  ;  white  lead,  7  parts ;  umber,  2  parts 
Mix  the  litharge  with  the  oil,  then  add  the  umber  and 
white  lead  by  degrees  when  the  oil  begins  to  boil  Con- 
tinue to  boil  for  three  or  four  hours. 


VARNISHSS.  113 

The  following  testa  for  ascertaining  the  purity  or 
otherwise  of  linseed  oil  have  been  collected.  (1)  Pure 
oil,  at  15°  C.  (59°  F.),  has  a  specific  gravity  ranging 
between  '935  and  -932.  Fish  oil  has  a  specific  gravity 
almost  the  same.  (2)  Pure  oil,  boiled  or  raw,  flashes 
at  244°  C.  (470°  F.).  Other  fatty  oils  flash  at  about 
the  same  temperature.  Resin  oil  flashes  at  between 
149°  and  165°  C.  (300°  and  330°  F.).  The  mineral 
oils  used  as  adulterants  flash  at  from  193°  to  215°  C. 
(380°  to  420°  F.).  (3)  When  equal  parts  of  linseed 
oil  and  nitric  acid  are  put  into  a  small  white  glass 
bottle  and  shaken  up,  the  mixture  will  appear,  after 
standing  for  fifteen  minutes  or  so,  when  the  oil  used 
is  pure  linseed,  as  an  upper  layer  of  muddy  olive- 
green  and  a  lower  one  almost  colourless  ;  when  fish  oil 
is  present,  the  upper  layer  will  be  a  deep  red-brown  and 
the  lower  layer  a  deep  blood-red.  (4)  Shaken  up  with 
soda  and  then  having  some  warm  water  added,  if  any 
petroleum  is  present,  it  will  separate  from  the  emulsion. 
(5)  When  put  in  a  bottle  and  buried  in  a  mixture  of  ice 
and  salt,  cottonseed  oil  will  solidify ;  pure  linseed  oil 
remains  liquid  till  17°  F.  is  reached. 

Varnish  for  musical  instruments  must  be  extremely 
pliable,  and  it  must  adhere  to  the  wood  without  cracking 
and  without  thickening  in  crevices,  thus  forming  an 
obstacle  to  the  proper  use  of  the  instrument.  For 
this  reason  shellac  and  oily  bodies  are  inadmissible. 
Varnishes  for  musical  instruments  are  generally  coloured 
red  or  yellow,  but  the  colouring  materials  should  not 
in  this  case  be  prepared  by  the  usual  mode  of  alcoholic 
solution,  but  by  distilling  the  varnish  on  a  water-bath  at 
a  temperature  of  about  100°  C.,  in  which  case  the  alcohol 
evaporates  (its  point  of  distillation  being  about  78°), 
while  the  essential  oil  remains  behind.  The  following 
are  suitable  recipes.  (1)  Sandaraeh,  l£  oz. ;  mastic 
in  tears,  2  ozs. ;  elemi,  £  oz. ;  turpentine,  £  oz. ;  castor 
oil,  £  oz. ;  spirit,  1  oz,  (2)  Mastic  in  tears,  J  oz. ;  soft 
white  dammar,  \  oz. ;  turpentine,  2  ozs. ;  raw  linseed 
oil,  5  nz.  Put  the  turpentine  in  a  broad-bottomed  bottle, 

H 


ii4  WOOD  FINISHING. 

with  a  small  quantity  of  powdered  glass,  and  add  the 
mastic.  Stir  frequently,  and  after  twenty-four  hours 
add  the  dammar.  Leave  to  stand  for  another  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  then  add  the  linseed  oil  while  stirring. 
Let  the  mixture  stand  for  a  fortnight  in  strong  light ; 
then  filter  through  cotton.  This  varnish  improves  with 
age,  and  is  best  when  six  or  eight  months  old. 

Varnishes,  in  which  the  solvent  consists  of  a  mixture 
of  an  essential  oil  and  linseed  oil,  do  not  dry  so  quickly 
as  pure  turpentine  varnishes,  but  they  are  much  harder 
and  more  durable,  and  are  largely  used  for  outside  work 
by  carriage-builders,  etc.  Shellac,  by  reason  of  its 
insolubility  in  fixed  oil,  is  rarely  employed  in  these 
varnishes,  its  place  being  generally  taken  by  copal  or 
amber.  The  following  are  some  recipes  for  varnishes 
of  this  class  : — Varnish  for  distempering  paint. — Dissolve 
on  the  water-bath  with  a  little  turpentine :  Powdered 
mastic,  i  oz. ;  powdered  white  olibanum,  1  oz.  Add 
to  the  mixture  while  hot :  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz. ; 
plain  oil  varnish,  £  oz. ;  turpentine,  1  pt.  Carriage  varn- 
ish. —  Hard  copal,  5  ozs. ;  plain  oil  varnish,  1  pt. ; 
turpentine,  1  pt. 

Varnishes  which  consist  of  all  those  preparations 
which  include  beeswax,  and  which  are  used  as 
furniture  polishes  are  fully  treated  upon  in  Chapter  VI. 

The  dulling  or  blooming  which  sometimes  mars  the 
appearance  of  a  varnished  surface  is  caused  by  the 
presence  of  water.  Gelatine  is  insoluble  in  spirit,  and  a 
thin  sheet  of  gelatine  cut  in  strips  and  put  in  the  varnish 
will  absorb  the  water  and  make  the  varnish  as  good  as 
ever,  so  that  it  can  be  used  clear  and  bright  to  the  last 
drop.  When  the  strips  of  gelatine  become  quite  soft, 
through  absorbing  the  moisture,  they  may  be  taken  out 
and  dried,  and  are  then  ready  for  use  again. 

To  refine  shellac  l£  Ib.  of  soda  are  dissolved  in 
45  Ibs.  of  water  in  a  suitable  boiler.  Add  to  this 
gradually  as  it  dissolves  5  Ibs.  of  shellac.  This  forms 
a  solution  of  violet-red  colour,  with  more  or  less  trace 
of  fatty  substances.  After  complete  solution  the 


VARNISHXS.  175 

mixture  is  boiled  for  a  few  minutes,  and  the  boiler 
is  then  covered  with  a  wooden  top,  which  is  cemented 
down,  and  the  contents  of  the  boiler  are  cooled  slowly. 
When  cold,  the  grease  on  the  surface  of  the  solution 
is  Hkimmed  off,  and,  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid  added 
drop  by  drop,  the  shellac  is  precipitated,  and  well 
washed  with  water  until  all  acid  reaction  is  removed. 
The  shellac  is  then  put  into  boiling'water  and  softened, 
so  that  it  may  be  worked' into  rods  or  plaits,  and  is 
hardened  by  transferring  it  to  cold  water  containing 
some  glycerine.  The  refined  shellac  should  have  a 
silver  to  a  yellowish-white  surface,  with  a  yellowish- 
brown  fracture.  It  should  be  perfectly  dry  and  entirely 
soluble  in  alcohol.  The  turbidity  of  alcoholic  solutions 
of  shellac  is  caused  by  a  fatty  substance  present  to  the 
extent  of  1  to  6  per  cent.  To  remove  this,  add  1  part  of 
powdered  chalk,  and  heat  to  112*  F.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  solution  clears  rapidly,  and  the  re- 
mainder may  be  clarified  by  filtering  once. 

Spirit  and  copal  varnishes  should  be  prepared  with 
pieces  of  transparent  copal  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the 
same  tint.  Qum  copal,  although  difficult  of  solution  in 
lumps,  has  the  property  of  liquefying  when  reduced  to 
very  fine  powder  and  kept  exposed  to  a  current  of  air. 
There  is  a  great  variety  of  copals,  but  for  general 
purposes  they  may  be  divided  into  hard,  half  hard, 
and  soft  copals.  The  preparation  of  copal  varnishes 
was  formerly  a  difficult  and  arduous  work,  no  easy 
process  being  known  for  completely  dissolving  the 
copal.  But  these  difficulties  have  been  overcome  by 
the  system  of  dissolving  it  on  the  water-bath,  at  a 
temperature  of  about  100°,  in  as  much  spirit  as  is 
required  to  give  the  necessary  fluidity  to  the  varnish, 
or  by  that  of  treating  both  the  resin  and  the  solvent 
in  a  closed  vessel  at  a  temperature  of  about  300°.  Half- 
soft  copal  contains  more  moisture  than  the  hard  resin, 
and  dissolves  quicker.  If  over  heated  it  may  turn 
black  and  be  spoilt  altogether.  Care  should  also  b« 
taken  to  dilute  it  with  turpentine  as  soon  as  the  oil 


n6  WOOD  FINISHING. 

has  been  incorporated.  The  following  makes  a  useful 
varnish  :— Half-soft  copal,  \\  Ib.  ;  boiled  linseed  oil,  i 
to  i  pt.,  turpentine,  1  gal. 

For  quick-drying  copal  varnish  the  following  are 
two  formulae  :— (1)  Turpentine,  1  pt. ;  spirit,  £  pt. 
Mix,  and  whilst  slowly  stirring,  add  powdered  copal, 
4  ozs.  Dissolve  at  about  100°  on  the  water-bath,  leave 
to  settle,  and  decant.  (2)  Powdered  copal,  18  ozs. ; 
turpentine,  3  pts. ;  copaiba  balsam,  3  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pt. 
Prepare  in  the  same  manner. 

Fat  copal  varnish  requires  a  good  deal  of  skill  in 
its  preparation,  especially  in  the  manipulation  of  the 
copal  solution,  which  is  easily  spoilt  by  insufficient  or 
excessive  heat.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  select 
copal  of  the  same  colour  and  the  same  degree  of  hard- 
ness. The  oil  should  be  added  to  the  copal  as  soon 
as  most  of  the  largest  pieces  have  dissolved.  Ex- 
ceptionally  hard  pieces  which  may  remain  undissolved 
should  be  taken  out  and  collected  to  make  a  special 
colution.  The  oil  before  being  poured  on  to  the  copal 
should  be  heated  to  about  the  same  temperature,  but 
it  must  not  be  added  in  a  boiling  state.  The  following 
proportions  are  usual : — Hard  or  half-soft  copal,  1  part ; 
oil,  9  parts ;  turpentine,  slightly  over  2  parts.  The 
oil  should  be  added  slowly;  to  incorporate  itself 
properly  with  the  copal,  it  should  be  between  120° 
and  150°.  If  too  hot,  effervescence  will  take  place,  if 
too  cold  it  will  form  a  cakey  varnish. 

Copal  varnishes  are  also  made  by  the  cold  process, 
but  the  solution  of  copal  in  essential  oil  generally  offers 
certain  difficulties,  especially  when  heat  is  used.  The 
following  process  seems  well  adapted  for  obtaining  copal 
varnish  without  the  use  of  heat  :— Eeduce  the  copal  to 
powder  and  then  add  gradually  the  spike  oil  or  other 
essential  oil  solvent,  beating  up  the  two  vigorously  in  a 
mixer.  Gradually  the  copal  dissolves,  and  the  solution 
may  be  filtered.  If  turpentine  is  afterwards  added  to 
copal  dissolved  in  the  cold  way  in  spike  oil,  the  copal  is 
precipitated,  which  does  not  occur  if  solution  has  been 


VARMSHXS.  117 

effected  by  the  aid  of  heat.  A  mixture  of  1  part  of 
spike  oil  to  9  parts  of  turpentine  may  be  added  to  the 
copal  without  causing  precipitation,  and  will  produce  a 
good  varnish.  By  mixing  powdered  copal  with  spike 
oil  and  then  mixing  linseed-oil  with  the  product,  a 
uniform  mixture  is  also  obtainable.  Dammar  resin  is 
rather  more  soluble  than  copal  in  essential  oil,  but  in 
using  this  or,  any  kind  of  soft  resin,  it  should  either  bo 
dissolved  over  a  naked  fire  previous  to  being  mixed  with 
the  solvent,  or  the  latter  should  be  added  boiling.  Thia 
is  done  because  soft  resins  contain  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  water,  and,  unless  previously  dried,  are  apt 
to  spoil  the  varnish.  Take  powdered  dammar,  f  lb.,  and 
form  a  thick  solution  with  about  i  pt.  of  turpentine, 
put  the  mixture  on  the  fire  and  when  it  commences  to 
boil  remove  from  the  fire  and,  under  constant  stirring, 
add  i  to  \  pt.  of  turpentine,  bring  the  mixture  on  the 
fire  again  and  heat  to  boiling  point  ;  then  withdraw, 
allow  to  stand,  and  filter.  The  addition  of  about  J  oz. 
of  camphor  will  facilitate  the  solution. 

Hard  copal  varnish  is  made  by  dissolving  on  a  naked 
fire  4  ozs.  of  hard  copal,  and  adding  slowly  fully  1  pt. 
of  oil,  heated  to  150°.  Then  add  about  lj  P*-  of  tur- 
pentine, filter,  and  keep  in  closed  vessels.  The  addition 
of  oil  of  rosemary  during  the  heating  of  the  copal  will 
give  a  colourless  varnish  at  a  comparatively  low  tem- 
perature. Hard  copal,  1  oz. ;  rosemary  oil,  £  oz. ;  linseed 
oil,  \  pt. ;  turpentine,  ^  pt.  The  linseed  oil  may  be 
replaced  by  copaiba  balsam,  thus  :  Dissolve  3  ozs.  of 
hard  copal,  add  1  oz.  of  heated  copaiba ;  dilute  with 
1  pt.  of  turpentine. 


tiS 


CHAPTER    XIV 

REPOLISHING    SHOP-FRONTS 

IT  is  assumed  that  only  those  who  have  some  knowledge 
of  the  craft,  and  skill  in  manipulations  will  care  to 
undertake  the  job  of  repolishing  a  shop-front,  which  is 
so  freely  exposed  to  the  criticism  of  every  passer-by.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  general  details,  as  these 
have  been  already  dealt  with.  A  grain-filler  need  not 
be  used  on  work  that  has  been  previously  polished  ;  the 
polish-rubber  should  be  kept  soft  and  pliable,  to  enable 
it  to  get  into  the  quirks,  corners,  and  carvings ;  the  best 
of  materials  only  should  be  used  ;  oil  should  be  spar- 
ingly applied ;  spirit  is  to  be  preferred  to  glaze,  and 
co  ensure  the  work  standing  out  bright  and  bearing 
future  inspection,  the  varnish  used  should  have  but  a 
small  percentage  of  resin.  When  the  varnish  is  bought 
ready  made,  that  known  as  "  best  brown  hard "  should 
be  procured ;  mix  it  with  an  equal  bulk  of  polish 
before  applying  it  to  the  work. 

To  polish  or  repolish  a  shop-front  with  a  mahogany 
swing-door,  and,  perhaps,  a  vestibule,  is  a  more  diffi- 
cult task  than  polishing  household  furniture  in  the 
workshop  or  at  the  bench.  If  the  woodwork  is  all  new, 
it  will  present  no  difficulties  to  a  practical  polisher,  pro- 
vided the  day  is  warm  and  bright  and  free  from 
excessive  damp  or  moisture.  Then  methylated  spirit 
can  be  used  as  a  solvent  for  the  shellac,  and  the  work 
will  stand  out  bright.  Damp  or  excessive  cold  will 
cause  the  polished  work  to  chill  or  turn  white,  and  then 
it  will  be  advisable  to  use  wood-naphtha  in  place  of 
spirits,  working  each  rubber  fairly  dry,  and  avoiding  the 
use  of  spirit  varnish  as  much  as  possible. 

In  repolishing,  cleanliness  is  most  important ;  for  it 
will  be  found  that  more  satisfaction  is  given  if  the 


REPOLISHING   SHOP-FRONTS.  119 

woodwork  is  clean,  and  of  an  even  colour,  than  if  a 
heavy  body  of  polish  is  laid  on  an  uncleaned  surface 
which  has  the  dirt  clinging  in  the  corners,  quirks,  and 
carvings.  Careful  attention  to  this  detail  stamps  a 
polisher  as  a  good  workman,  and  enables  him  truthfully 
to  print  on  his  trade-card :  "  Old  work  repolished 
equal  to  new." 

Unfortunately,  shop-fronts  are  generally  allowed  to 
get  into  a  very  bad  state  before  it  is  decided  to  incur  the 
expense  of  repolishing.  The  polish  becomes  worn  off 
the  bottom  rail,  which  is  black  and  dirt-begrimed  ;  the 
lower  part  of  the  pillars  is  light  in  colour  ;  the  door  has 
faded  on  the  lower  half,  and  the  upper  portion  has  only 
been  kept  from  reaching  the  same  condition  by  the 
covering  of  dirt  which  intercepts  the  sunlight.  In  such 
a  case,  the  best  plan  would  be  to  scrape  off  all  the 
polish,  smooth  down  with  glass-paper,  wiping  the  work 
over  with  "  red  oil,"  and  allow  it  to  stand  the  night 
To  make  the  red  oil,  steep  \  Ib.  alkanet  root  in  1  pt.  raw 
linseed  oil.  It  imparts  to  mahogany  a  rich  colour  if 
allowed  to  stand  at  least  twelve  hours,  in  sunshine  if 
possible.  This  work  may  be  said  to  belong  more  pro- 
perly to  the  shop-fitter,  and  would  practically  mean 
placing  the  job  in  the  polisher's  hands  as  new  work. 

This  method  may  be  deemed  too  expensive,  and  in 
that  case  we  must  content  ourselves  with  gaining  a 
clean  surface  by  washing  it  down  with  strong  soda  water 
— \  Ib.  common  washing  soda  to  1  gal.  warm  water- 
assisted  by  a  little  powdered  pumice  stone  or  bath-brick, 
and  using  a  scrubbing-brush  to  get  the  dirt  out  of 
the  corners,  quirks,  carvings,  etc.,  afterwards  swilling  off 
with  clean  water  and  wiping  dry.  Should  the  dirt  still 
remain  and  leave  the  corners,  etc.,  dark  in  colour,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  bleach  these.  This  is  done  by  brushing 
over  with  weak  solution  of  oxalic  acid — £  oz.  to  1  pt. 
warm  water — and  swilling  off  again  with  clean  water. 
The  bleached  portions,  when  dry,  must  be  wiped  over 
with  common  malt  vinegar  to  kill  any  trace  of  the  acid, 
and  chua  prevent  its  eating  through  the  polish. 


i2O  WOOD  FINISHING. 

Now  it  will  be  possible  to  see  exactly  how  the  work 
stands.  Any  very  light  portion,  if  covered  with  a  good 
body  of  polish,  should  have  this  polish  removed  by 
rubbing  with  No.  1  glass  paper,  on  the  face  of  which 
a  little  methylated  spirit  has  been  sprinkled.  Then  all 
nail-holes  and  cracks  should  be  stopped  with  putty, 
coloured  to  match  by  mixing  some  Venetian  red,  or, 
better  still,  with  beeswax  and  resin  in  equal  parts, 
coloured  by  the  same  means  as  the  putty,  and  pressed  in 
whilst  hot  with  a  piece  of  stick. 

After  smoothing  down  the  surface  with  worn  glass- 
paper,  and  wiping  free  from  dust,  the  work  should  be 
wiped  all  over  with  a  rag  moistened  with  linseed  oil,  to 
enable  the  new  polish  to  take  more  kindly  to  the  old, 
and  all  bare  portions  and  light-coloured  places  should 
be  bodied-up  with  coloured  polish  to  equalise  the  shade. 
The  whole  of  the  work  may  then  be  treated,  still  using 
polish  with  a  little  colour  in  to  make  it  look  more  lively. 
Bismarck  brown  is  generally  used  as  the  colouring 
medium,  but  it  is  not  always  advisable  to  use  it  for  out- 
door work,  except  when  the  work  is  merely  bodied-up 
with  it,  and  finished  with  a  clear  polish. 

The  sun's  action  has  a  great  influence  on  these  bril- 
liant reds  ;  if  exposed  to  the  glare  of  sunlight  they  will 
soon  fade  unless  protected.  It  is  preferable  to  use  red 
sanders,  though  it  does  not  look  so  powerful  when  seen 
in  the  bottle.  Two  ounces  of  this  steeped  in  a  pint  of 
polish,  and  carefully  strained  before  using,  will  be  found 
satisfactory.  When  well  worked  with  the  rubber,  it  will 
be  found  to  gain  in  intensity  and  to  enrich  the  work  and 
more  closely  imitate  the  colour  of  mahogany  than  does 
the  Bismarck  brown,  which  gives  the  more  glaring  red 
often  seen  on  common  furniture. 

Though  the  instructions  here  given  are  for  mahogany 
work,  they  apply  equally  to  walnut,  except  that  the 
red  added  to  the  polish  must  not  be  so  intense. 

Black  work  should  be  cleansed  in  the  same  manner 
as  described  above,  and  the  polishing  done  with  black 
polish.  This  can  be  bought  as  ebonite,  ready  made,  or 


REPOLISHING  SHOP-FRONTS.  121 

combined  ebony  stain  anu  polish  may  be  used,  or  it  can 
be  made  by  dissolving  4  ozs.  garnet  shellac  in  1  pt.  spirit. 
Its  blackness  will  be  intensified  by  adding  1  oz.  of  black 
aniline  dye.  The  white  polish  as  made  from  bleached 
shellac  may  be  used  instead  if  similarly  dyed.  The 
black  aniline  dye  soluble  in  spirit,  which  can  be  obtained 
at  most  shops  where  polishers'  sundries  are  sold  is  the 
proper  kind  for  this  purpose.  Should  any  great  diffi- 
culty arise,  gas  black  is  a  useful  substitute.  Where 
there  is  any  incised  work  to  be  gilded,  finish  the  polish- 
ing before  this  is  attempted. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  remove  paint  from  shop- 
fronts  that  have  been  painted  on  an  ebonised  or  polished 
ground.  The  following  method  was  adopted  in  a  case 
where  some  mahogany  shop-fronts  that  had  been 
painted  were  required  to  be  polished  in  their  natu- 
ral colour.  Burning  off  was  out  of  the  question, 
owing  to  the  glass  and  the  liability  to  scorch  the 
wood.  One  bucketful  of  a  strong  solution  of  freshly 
slaked  lime,  to  which  was  added  about  2  Ibs.  common 
soda,  1  Ib.  soft  soap,  \  pt.  liquid  ammonia,  was  used. 
This,  laid  on  with  an  old  brush,  soon  softened  the  paint, 
and  enabled  it  to  be  scraped  off  with  a  chisel-shaped 
putty  knife  and  steel  scrapers.  Many  applications  were 
required,  and  several  brushes  were  soon  spoilt  by  the 
corrosive  action  of  the  solution ;  but  eventually  all  the 
paint  and  polish  was  removed.  The  work  was  then 
bleached  with  oxalic  acid,  vinegared,  red-oiled,  and 
lastly  polished  with  coloured  polish ;  and  after  two 
years'  wear  the  job  will  still  bear  inspection.  Some 
difficulty  occurred  in  removing  the  paint  from  all  the 
quirks  ;  these,  and  other  portions  which  showed  them- 
selves dark  in  the  polishing,  were  touched  up  with 
Venetian  red  mixed  in  1  part  polish  and  3  parts  spirit, 
and  when  dry  these  portions  were  coated  with  red 
varnish  and  polished. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  how  to  remove  the  polish  and 
varnish  from  the  glass,  because,  however  careful  one  may 
be  in  polishing,  varnish  is  sure  to  get  on  the  glass  ; 


122  WOOD  FINISHING. 

indeed,  fro  ensure  that  the  pillars,  etc.,  have  an  even 
body  on,  and  look  well  to  the  extreme  edges,  it  is  desir- 
able not  to  study  the  glass.  The  polish  can  be  removed 
when  all  is  hard  and  dry  by  taking  a  sponge,  wet  with 
clean  water,  wiping  it  over  the  glass  and  polish,  etc., 
and,  whilst  wet,  cutting  upwards  with  a  sharp  f-in. 
or  1-in.  carpenter's  chisel.  If  care  is  taken  to  keep  the 
glass  wet  and  the  chisel  sharp,  there  will  be  no  danger 
of  scratching  the  glass. 

The  following  recipes  may  be  useful  in  polishing 
shop-fronts  :  —  French  Polish  —  Dissolve  4  ozs.  be  it 
orange  shellac  in  1  pt.  methylated  spirit.  Spit  it 
Varnish  —  Shellac,  3  ozs. ;  gum  sandarach,  3  oza.  ; 
mastic,  \  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz. ;  camphor, 
10  grs. ;  spirit,  20  ozs.  Red  Oil— Alkanet  root,  £  lb., 
steeped  in  1  pt.  raw  linseed  oil.  Red  Stain— \  oz. 
Bismarck  brown  dissolved  in  £  pt.  spirit ;  a  few  drops  to 
be  added  to  the  polish  or  varnish,  to  make  what  is 
commonly  termed  red  polish  or  red  varnish. 


INDEX. 


Ameiican  Organs,  Method  of  Finish- 
ing, 32 

Ammonia,  Use  of,  for  Darkening 
Oak,  12 

Aniline  Dyes,  17,  89 

Antique  Oak,  Imitating,  85 

Ash,  Filler  for,  33 

Asphaltum,  Substitute  for,  61 


Bath  Brick  for  Cleaning  Floors,  73 
Beaumontage  (See  Hard  Stopping) 
Beeswax,  Coloured,  70 
—  for  Stopping,  69,  70 

,  White  and  Yellow,  50 

Birch,  Darkening,  61 

,  Matching,  63 

Bird's-eye  Maple  for  Inlays,  13 
Black,  Lustrous,  for  Wood,  88 

Polish,  88, 121 

Stains,  87 

Blisters  in  Veneered  Surface,  Car- 
ing, 69 

Blooming  of  Varnished  Surface,  114 
Blue  Stain,  90 
Bodying-in,  Final,  43 
— — ,  Meaning  of,  35 

,  Method  of,  37,  38 

,  Number  of  Times  Required,  40 

,  Second,  40 

Body-Staining,  16 

Borders,  Decorative,  for  Floors,  77 

Brown  Stain,  90 

Bruises  in  Wood,  Bemoving,  62,  69 

Brushes  for  Varnishing,  96,  99 

Bull-nose  Plane,  73 


Cabinets,  Eepolishing,  59 
Carpets,  Square,  Advantages  of,  72 
Carriages,  Varnishing,  95 
Carvings,  Polishing,  59 
Charging  Rubber  with  Polish,  26 
Cherry  Stains,  91 
Chilla  OB  French  Polish,  Remedy. 

ing,  « 
Chinese  Articles,  Imitating,  100 


Clean  Hands,  Impot  tanoe  of,  When 
Bodying-in,  41 

Cleaning  Wood,  58, 119 

Cleanliness,  Importance  of,  in  Re- 
polishing,  118 

Coarse  Work,  Finish  for,  9 

Colouring-up,  62,  63 

Colouring  Varnishes,  102 

Colours,  Dry,  Uses  of,  64 

for  Filters,  34 

Combined  Stains  and  Varnish,  17,  77 

Copal  Varnishes,  115 

Cotton  Flock  Not  Suitable  for 
Rubbers,  25 

Covering  for  Rubbers  24,  25 


Dark  Oak  Stains,  85 
Darkening  Wood,  88.  89 
Decorative  Borders  for  Floors,  77 
Dining-  table    Tops,   Methods    of 

Finishing,  49,  54 
Driers  for  Oil,  112 
Dry-shining,  Advantages  of,  56 

,  Meaning  of,  55 

,  Method  of,  56,  57 

Dull-glazed  Surface,  How  to    Pro- 

duce,  48 

Dulling  of  Varnished  Surface,  114 
Durable  Polish,  Secret  of,  42 
Dust,  Protecting  Finished  Surface 

from,  44 
,  Removing   from  Bodied  Sur» 

face,  41 

, ,  before  Filling  In,  29 

Dye-woods.  18 
Dyed  Polishes,  Using,  64 
Dyeing  Veneers,  93 
Dyes,  Aniline,  17 
.  Vegetable,  17, 18 


Ebony,  Imitating,  49 

Stains,  87 

Edges,    Importance     of     Care  in 

Polishing,  42 

Egg-shell  Finish  for  Wood,  32,  95 
Enamelling,  95 


124 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Faded    Polish,    Bestoring,  61,    62, 

64 
Fancy  Furniture,  Finishing  95 

,  Staining,  89 

Fillers,  American,  34 

,  for  Ash,  33 

for  Cheap  Work,  29 

,  Good  General,  31 

,  Home-made,  29 

for  Light  Woods,  29 

Mahogany,  29 

,  Making,  29 

,  Methods  of  Applying,  30,  31 

'for  Pine.'  29 

Quick  Work,  32 

,  Eeady-made,  29 

for  Shop  Fronts,  120 

• ,  Thinning,  29 

'  Tinting,  33, 34 

,  Use  of,  in  French  Polishing, 

28 

for  Walnut,  29 

Filling  in,  French  Method  of,  31 
— — Necessary   before   French 

Polishing,  20 

with  Polish  or  Varnish,  30 

Finishing  Wood,  Various  Processes 

of,  9 

Flashing  Points  of  Oils,  113 
Flat  surfaces,  Eubber  for  Polishing, 

22 
Floors,  American,  71 

,  Cleaning,  73 

,  Finishing,  79 

,  French  Polished,  75 

,  Hardwood,  71 

,  Marking  out,  for  Staining,  74 

',  Preparing  for  Staining,  72,  73 

,  Simple  method  of  Staining,  74 

— r- ,  Sizing,  79 

,  Smoothing,  72,  73 

,  Stained,  Advantages  of,  71 

,  Protecting,  80 

,  Eenovating,  80 

,  Staining,  16 

,  Varnished,  75 

,  Varnishing,  79 

,  Veneered,  71 

,  Wax  Polished,  75 

French  Method  of  Filling,  31 

Polish,  Origin  of,  12 

,  for  Shop  Fronts,  122 

,  Eemedying  Chills  in,  21 

Polisher,  Qualifications  of  the, 

12,  13 
Polished  Work,  Old,  Eeviving, 

48 

—  Polishing,  Conditions  of  Suc- 
cess in,  20,  21 

,  Difficulties  of,  13 

—  — —  for  Floors,  75 


French  Polishing,  Materials    used 

in,  21 

,  Meaning  of.  9,  20 

,  Need  of  Skill  in,  20 

,  Preparation  of  Wood  for, 

20 
and  Varnishing  Compound, 

11 
Freshening  up  Polished  Furniture, 

Fretwork,  Finishing  with  Oil,  55 

,  Polishing,  46,  49 

,  Eubber  for  Polishing,  22 

,  Wax  Polishing  for,  49 

Fumigated  Oak,  Finishing,  89 

Fumigation,  88 

Furniture,  Cheap  Quality  of  Polish 

,' Polished,  Freshening  up,  44 

, ,  Packing  for  Transit,  44 

,  Processes  of  Finishing,  9,  10 

,  Advantages  and  Disadvantages 

of  Varnishing,  10 
Trade,     Distinction     between 

Workers  in,  11 

G 

German  Pianos,  Methods  of  Polish- 
ing, 60 

,  Eenovating,  60,  61 

Gilded  Wood,  Varnishes  for,  108 

Gilder's  Mops,  96 

Glass-paper,  Substitute  for,  99 

,  Use  of,  37,  41 

,  Use  of  in  Stained  Work, 

83 

Papering  Varnished  Work,  99 

Glaze,  Applied  as  a  Varnish,  47 

and  French  Polish,  Mixture  of, 

47 

,  How  to  Make,  46,  47 

,  Improving  Appearance  of,  47 

,  Method  of  Applying,  47 

,  Price  of,  47 

for  Eeviving  French  Polished 

Work,  48 

,  Use  of,  for  Fretwork,  46 

,  Use  of,  in  Inlaid  Work,  46 

,  Where  to  Obtain,  47 

Glazing,  Advantages  and  Disad- 
vantges  of,  45 

a  Wide  Surface,  48 

Greasiness,  Eemoving,  from  Po- 
lished Surface,  64 

Green  Stains,  90 

Grey  Stain,  90 

Gum  Benzoin,  and  Lac  Compared, 

Gums  and  i Resins,  Use  of,  in  mak- 
ing Polish,  37 


Hard    Stopping,     Advantages     otr 
67 


INDEX. 


Hard  Stopping,  Cost  of.  67  I 

N 

,  How  to  Make,  67,  68 
,  Uses  of,  66.  67 

Nail-Holea,  Stopping,  72,  73 

,  Using,  68  69 

Hardwood  Floors,  71 

Horsehair  Cloth  as  a  Substitute  for 

o 

Glass-paper,  99 

Oak,  Best  Method  of  Finishing,  48 

,  Darkening,  12 

I 

,  Enriching  Colour  of,  by  Oil,  55 

,  Filler  for,  33 

Imitation  Marble,  65 
Inferior  Woods,  Improving,  88 
Inlaid  Work,  Polishing,  46 
,  Staining,  92 

Fumigating,  88 
,  Imitating  Grain  of,  84 
,  Imitation  Antique,  85 
t  Matching,  63 

Inlays,  Imitation  Pearl,  13 

Stains,  82,'  85 

on  Work-boxes,  etc.,  13 

Oil  Driers,  112 

,  in  Fillers  32,  33 

,  Flashing  Points  of,  113 

J 

,  Linseed,  Boiled  and  Raw,  54 

Japanning  Pine  Furniture,  10 
Jar  for  Varnish,  96 

,  ,  Boiling,  112 
,  ,  Tests  for  113 
,  ,  for  Varnishes,  111 

,  Object   of  Using,  in  French 

t 
Knick-knacks,  Finishing,  95 

Polishing,  39 
and  Polish  as  a  Filler,  33 
Polish,  Method  of  Application, 

§  Staining,  89 

54 

Polishing,  Advantages  of,  for 

L 

Dining-table  Tops,  54 
,  Durable  Character  of,  53 

Light  Woods,  Fillers  for,  29 
Linseed  Oil,  Boiled  and  Raw,  54 

for  Furniture,  10 
,  Ingredients  Used  in,  54 
,  Tedious  Character  of,  53 

—  —  ,  Boiling,  112 
,  Tests  for,  113 

,  Raw,  Use  of,  29 
,  Red,  119,  122 

for  Varnishes,  111 

Used  in  French  Polishing,  38 

M 

Oiled  Floors,  75 
Oiling  Wood,  Effect  of,  20 

to  Enrich  its  Colour,  55 

Madder,  17 
Mahogany,  Best  Method  of  Finish- 
ing,  94 
Enriching  Colour  of,  55 

Previous  to  Staining,  84 
Oils,  Specific  Gravity  of,  1.3 
Olive  Green  Stain,  90 
Orchella  Wood,  17 

,  Filler  for,  29 
,  Method  of  Finishing,  49 

Oriental  Articles,  Imitating,  109 

Shop-fronts,  Polishing,  121 
,  Spanish,  Imitating,  13 

P 

Stains,  85 

Maple,  Birdseye,  for  Inlays,  13 
Stain  85 

Packing    Mats    Liable    to   Injure 
Polished  Furniture,  44 

Maps,  Varnish  for,  110 
Marble,  Imitating,  65 

Pad,  French  Polish  er'sfSw  Rubber) 
Paint,  Removing,  from  Shop-fronts, 

Marking  out  Floors  for  Staining,  74 
Marquetry  Work,  Imitating,  18,  19 
Martin's  Varnish,  11,  12 

121 
,  Thinning,  77 
Painted  Woodwork,  Preparing  for 

Matching,  62,  63 

Staining,  93 

Use  of  Dry  Colours  in,  64 
Methylated  Spirit,  Rectifying,  104 
Mottled   Appearance,    Imitating  in 
Matchiug,  63 

Painting  as  a  Method  of  Finishing 
Wood,  9 
Woodwork,  Objection  to,  15 
Panels,  Decorating,  13 

Mouldings,  Applying  Fillers  to,  30 
,  Removing  Varnish  from,  59 
M  'isioal     Instruments,     Varnishea 

,  Varnishing,  99 
Parquetry,  71 
Patches,  White,  on  Polished  So* 

for,  113 

faces,  60 

126 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Pianos,  German,  Method  of  Polish- 
ing, 60 

, ,  Renovating,  60,  61 

Pigments,  64 

Pine,  Filler  for,  29 

Furniture,  Methods  of  Finish- 
ing, 10 

riane,  Bull-nose,  73 

Plaster  of  Paris  for  Stopping  Nail- 
nolcs,  73 

and  Water  as  a  Filler, 

31 

and  Polish  as  a  Filler,  33 

Polish,  Bought  and  Home-made,  36, 
37 

,  Black,  for  Shop-fronts,  121 

,  Brown,  38 

,  Consi  stone  v  of,  39,  40 

for  Ebonised  Wood,  88,  121 

as  a  Filler,  31 

,  A  Good  Average,  35 

,  Method  of  Applying,  26 

,  Eemoving,  from  Glass,  122 

, ,  from  the  Hands,  41 

, ,  from  Wood,  119 

,  Sweating,  Remedy  for,  55 

— ,  Thinning,  35 

and  Varnish  as  a  Filler,  30 

,  White,  36,  121 

Polished  and  Varnished  Surface, 
Distinction  Between,  10 

Polisher,  Qualifi  cations  of  the,  12, 
13 

Polishing  (Set  also  French  Polish- 
ing) 

Polishing,  Good  Examples  of,  35 

,  Oil  Used  in,  38 

Varnished  Surface,  102 

Pumice  Powder,  Use  of,  31,  32,  41 

Stone,  Use  of,  on  Varnished 

Work,  101 

Purple  Stain,  90 

Putty  for  Stopping  Nail-Holes,  73 


Bags,   Selection   of,    fop   Covering 

Rubbers,  24 
Raw  Oil,  Use  of,  29 
Red  Oil,  119 
Refining  Shellac,  114 
Removing  Dirt  from  Wood,  58,  119 
Repolishing  Cabinets,  etc.,  59 

,  Consistency  of  Polish  for,  64 

,  Preparation  of  Wood  for,  58 

,  Shop-fronts,  118-132 

Resins   fur    Colouring     Varnishes, 

102 
Restoring   Faded    Polish,    61,    62, 

64 
Reviving     Old     French     Polished 

Work,  48 

Rosewood,  Matcliinsr  61 
SUins,  86 


Rubber,  Charging,  with  Polish,  36 

,  Covering  of,  24 

,  Degree  of  Moistness  Desirabli 

in,  39 

,  Drying,  41 

,  French  Polisher's,  21-27 

, ,  Necessity  of  Cleanli- 

ness  in,  22 

,  General  Form  of,  22 

to  be  Kept  Moving,  26,  42 

,  Method  of  Holding,  23,  25 

,  Old  Better  than  New,  27 

for  Polishing  in  Corners  22 

Flat  Surfaces,  22 

Fretwork,  22 

,  Preserving  for  Future  Use,  27 

,  Sizes  of,  21,  25 

for  Spiriting  off,  43 

,  Substitute   for,    in    Spiriting 

off,  44 
Rubbing  Down  Varnished   Work, 

99,  101 


Safflower,  17 

Sand-paper,  Use  of  when  Staining, 

9 

Satin-wood  Stain,  90 
Scrapers  for  Removing  Varnish,  5& 
Sealing  Wax  Varnish,  110 
Shellac,  Applying,  99 

-  ,  Dissolving,  106 

-  Gum,  Varieties  of,  97 

-  ,  Refining,  114 

-  for  Thickening  Polish,  35 

-  ,  Thinning,  98 

Shields   for  Decorative    Purposes, 
65 


m,  119 


Shop-fronts,  New,  Polishing,  118 
-  ,  Removing  Old  Polish  fro 


,  Re-polishing,  118 
In,  29 


Size  for  Filling 

-  ,  Use  of,  in  Staining  Floors,  76 
Sizing  Floors,  79 

Specific  Gravity  of  Oils,  113 
Spiriting  Off,  42,  43,  44 
--  ,  Cause  of  Failure  in,  44 
Stained  Floor,  Protecting,  80 
--  ,  Renovating,  80 
Staining,  Effect  of,  on  Wood,  9 

-  Employed  by  French  Polisher*, 

-  Floors,  16,  70-80 
--  ,  Method  of,  76 
--  ,  Tools  for,  76 

-  Inlaid  Work,  92 


,  Methods  of,  16 

,  Objections  to,  15 

Preparing  for,  92 

,  Three  Classes  of,  15 

in  Two  Colours,  92 

,  Uses  of,  15,  16 

V<me«rs,  93 


INDEX. 


127 


Stains,  Advantage  of  Buying  Ready- 
made,  16 

to  be  Avoided,  16 

,  Floor,  How  to  Make,  75,  77,  82 

,  Home-made,  Disadvantages  of, 

16 

,  for  Interior  Decoration,  18 

,  Liquid,  16 

,  Powder,  16 

,  Quantity  Required  for  Floors, 

,  Recipes  for :— Walnut,  81 ;  Oak, 

82;  Dark  Oak,  85;  Maple,  85; 
Mahogany,  85, 122 ;  Rosewood,  86 ; 
Ebony,  87 ;  Satin-wood,  90  ;  Rich 
Purple  or  Chocolate,  90  ;  Purple, 
90;  Grey,  90;  Green,  90;  Olive 
Green,  90;  Blue,  90;  Brown,  90; 
Yellow,  90;  Cherry,  90;  Red,  122 

,  Solvent  for,  16 

• as  Substitutes  for  Painting  and 

Graining,  16 

,  Thinning,  92 

and  Varnish  Combined,  17,  77 

,  Vegetable,  17,  18 

, ,  for  Imitating  Marquetry, 

Stencil  Plates,  Cutting,  77 

Stencilling  on  Floors,  78 

Stringings,  Coloured,  13 

Stopping  (see  also  Filling) 

Stopping  by  Means  of  Beeswax,  etc. 
63,70 

,  Hard,  (te»  under  Hard) 

Nail  Holes,  72,  73 

Stopping-out  Wax  (tee  Hard  Stop- 
ping) 

Sun,  Influence  of,  on  Polished  Sur- 
face, 120 

Surface-staining,  16 

Sweating,  Cause  and  Cure  of,  55,  97 

,  How  to  Avoid,  59 


Tallow  for  Fillers,  32 
Temperature    Suited    for    French 

Polishing  21 

Tiles,  Imitation,  on  Floors,  79 
Tinting  Fillers,  33,  34 
Tools  for  Staining  Floors,  76 

Used  in  French  Polishing,  21 

Toys,  Varsishes  for,  109 
Transfers,    for    Decorating    Door 

Panels,  13 
Turmeric,  17 
Turned  Work,  Removing  Varnish 

from,  58 

V. 

Varnish,  Action  of  a,  11 

,  Amber,  108 

,  Applying,  98, 100 


Varnish,  Black,  106 

,  Bright,  for  Toys,  etc.,  109 

,  Brown  Spirit,  106 

for  Carriages,  114 

,  Clear,  110 

,  Clearing,  106 

,  Colouring,  102 

,  Colourless,  110 

,  Components  of,  98 

,  Copal  and  Spirit,  115 

, ,  Made  Without  Heat,  116 

,  Dark,  106 

,  Durable,  109 

,  Essential  Oil  Classification  of, 

110 

, ,  Making,  111 

, ,  Uses  of,  110 

,  Ether,  Classification  of,  107 

, ,  Recipes  for,  107 

, ,  Uses  of,  107 

,.Fat  Copal,  116 

, Oil,  Classification  of,  111 

, ,  Making,  112 

a&  a  Filler,  30 

as  a  Finish  for  Coarse  Work, 

9 

for  Gilded  Wood,  108 

,  Hard  Copal,  117 

, Reddish,  110 

,  Keeping,  96 

,  Levelling  down,  98 

,  Making,  103 

for  Metals,  109 

for  Musical  Instruments,  113 

,  To  Obtain  a  Fine  Polish  with, 

101 

for  Outside  Work,  114, 122 

,  Perfumed,  109 

,  Quantity  Required  for  Floors, 

— ,  Quick  Drying,  105,  107 

, Copal,  116 

,  Reddish,  106 

,  Removing,  58,  59 

,  from  Glass,  122 

,  Sandarach, 

,  Sealing-wax,  110 

,  for  Shop-fronts,  118 

,  Spirit,  95 

, ,  Classification  of,  105 

, ,  for  Shop-fronts,  122 

, ,  Recipes  for,  106 

Suitable  for  Pine  Furniture,  10 

,  Thinning,  96-98 

,  White  Furniture,  106 

, ,  Hard,  107 

, ,  for  Maps,  110 

Varnished  Floors,  75 

and  Polished  Surface,  Distino 

tion  between,  10 

Surface  Polishing,  102 

Work,  Restoring,  58 

Varnishing  Ebonised  Wood,  88 
Floors,  79 


128 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Varnishing  and  French    Polishing 

Compared,  11 

,  Preparing  Work  for,  98 

Suitable  for  Common  Articles, 

20 

When  Suitable,  94 

Vegetable  Stains,  17,  18 

for  Imitating  Marquetry, 

Veins  in  Wood,  Matching,  63 
Veneers,  Staining,  93 
Vernis  Martin,  11, 12  . 


Wadding  for  Eubbers,    Where  to 

Obtain,  25 

,  Substitute  for,  25 

Walnut,  Filler  for,  29 

Stains,  81 

Washing  Between  First  and  Second 

Bodying,  41 
Water  in  Fillers,  38 
Wavy  Apppearance,  Imitating    in 

Matching.  63 


Wax  Polish,  Application  of,  52 

— ^,  Consistency  of,  51,  52 

,  How  to  Make,  50 

,  Ingredients  of,  49 

,  Thinning,  50 

,  Preserving,  51 

,  Stiffening,  50 

Wai  Polishing  for  Floors,  75 

for  Furniture,  10j) 

,  Necessity  of  Hand  Bul- 
bing in,  52 

Suitable  for  Beginners,  48 

Superior  to  Varnishing,  46 

,  Woods  Suited  for,  49 

Wet  Eubber  to  be  Avoided,  39,  43 
White  Patches  on    Polished   Sur- 

faces,  60 
Whiting  and  Turpentine  as  a  Filler, 

Woods  Suited  for  Wax  Polishing,  48 
Work,  Appearance  of  After  First 
Bodying-in,  39,  40 


Yellow  Stains,  90 


PKIWTTO  BV  CASBKU,  ft  COMPAJTT,  LIMITTO,  Li  BELLB  SALVAGE,  I/ONDOK,  B.C. 

50-504 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES  (continued). 


Electro-  Plating.     With  Numerous  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— Introduction.  Tanks,  Vats,  and  other  Apparatus.  Batteries, 
Dynamos,  and  Electrical  Accessories.  Appliances  for  Preparing  and  Finishing 
Work.  Silver-Plating,  Copper-Plating.  Gold-Plating.  Mickel-Plating  and 
Cycle- Plating,  finishing  Electro-Plated  Goods.  Electro-Plating  with  Various 
Metals  and  Alloys.  Index. 

Clay  Modelling  and  Plaster  Casting.    With  153  Engravings  and 

Diagrams. 

Contents.— Introduction.  Drawing  for  Modellers.  Tools  and  Material  for 
Modelling.  Clay  Modelling.  Modelling  Ornament.  Modelling  the  Human 
Figure.  Waste-moulding  Process  for  Plaster  Casting.  Piece-moulding  and 
Gelatine  Moulding.  Taking  Casts  from  Nature.  Clay  Squeezing  or  Clay 
Moulding.  Finishing  Plaster  Casts.  Picture  Frame  in  Plaster.  Index. 

Violins  and  Other  Stringed  Instruments.    With  about  180 

Illustrations. 

Contents.— Materials  and  Tools  for  Violin  Making.  Violin  Moulds.  Violin 
Making.  Varnishing  and  Finishing  Violins.  Double  Bass  and  a  Violoncello. 
Japanese  One-string  Violin.  Mandolin  Making.  Guitar  Making.  Banjo 
Making.  Zither  Making.  Dulcimer  Making.  Index. 

Glass  Writing,  Embossing,  and  Fascia  Work.    (Including 

the  Making  and  Fixing  of  Wood  Letters  and  Illuminated  Signs.)     With 
129  Illustrations. 

Contents.— Plain  Lettering  and  Simple  Tablets.  Gold  Lettering.  Blocked 
Letters.  Stencil  Cutting.  Gold  Etching.  Embossing.  French  or  Treble 
Embossing.  Incised  Fascias,  Stall-plates,  and  Grained  Background.  Letters 
in  Perspective;  Spacing  Letters.  Arrangement  of  Wording  and  Colors.  Wood 
Letters.  Illuminated  Signs.  Temporary  Signs  for  Windows.  Imitation 
Inlaid  Signs.  Imitation  Mosaic  Signs.  Specimen  Alphabets.  Index. 

Other  Volumes  in  Preparation. 


DAVID   McKAV,  Publisher,  610  South  Washington  Square,   Philadelphia. 


L5 

TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

Important  New  Series  of  Practical  Volumes.  Edited  by  PAUL 
N.  HASLUCK.  With  numerous  Illustrations  in  the  Text. 
Each  book  contains  about  160  pages,  crown  8vo.  Cloth, 
$1.00  each,  postpaid. 

Practical  Draughtsmen's  Work,    with  226  illustrations. 

Contents.  —  Drawing  Boards.  Paper  and  Mounting.  Draughtsmen's  Instru- 
ments. Drawing  Straight  Lines.  Drawing  Circular  Lines.  Elliptical  Curves. 
Projection.  Back  Lining  Drawings.  'Scale  Drawings  and  Maps.  Colouring 
Drawings.  Making  a  Drawing.  Index. 

Practical  Gasfitting.    With  120  illustrations. 

Conienis—How  Coal  Gas  is  Made.  Coal  Gas  from  the  Retort  to  the  Gas 
Holder.  Gas  Supply  from  Gas  Holder  to  Meter.  Laying  the  Gas  Pipe  in  the 
House.  Gas  Meters.  Gas  Burners.  Incandescent  Lights.  Gas  Fittings  in 
Workshops  and  Theatres.  Gas  Fittings  for  Festival  Illuminations.  Gas  Fires 
and  Cooking  Stoves.  Index. 

.  Practical  Staircase  Joinery,    with  215  illustrations. 

Contents.  —  Introduction  :  Explanation  of  Terms.  Simple  Form  of  Staircase 
—  Housed  String  Stair:  Measuring,  Planning,  and'  Setting  Out.  Two-flight 
Staircase.  Staircase  with  Winders  at  Botto.m.  Staircase  with  Winders  at  Top 
and  Bottom.  Staircase  with  Half-space  of  Winders.  Staircase  over  an  Oblique 
Plan.  Staircase  with  Open  or  Cut  Strings.  Cut  String  Staircase  with  Brackets. 
Open  String  Staircase  with  Bull  nose  Step.  Geometrical  Staircases.  Winding 
Staircases.  Ships'  Staircases.  Index. 

Practical  Metal  Plate  Work.    With  247  Illustrations. 

Contents.—  Materials  used  in  Metal  Plate  Work.  Geometrical  Construction 
of  Plane  Figures.  Geometrical  Construction  and  Development  of  Solid 
Figures.  Tools  and  Appliances  used  in  Metal  Plate  Work.  Soldering  and 
Brazing.  Tinning.  Re-tinning  and  Galvanising.  Examples  of  Practical 


Brazing.      Tinning.       Re-tinning  and   Galvanising.         xampes    of  P 
Metal  Plate  Work.     Examples  of  Practical  Pattern  Drawing.     Index. 

llustration 

l  Aids.    Graining 


Practical  Graining  and  Marbling.    With.  79  illustrations. 

Contents.  —  Graining:   Introduction',  Tools,  and  Mechanica 


.  —  ,  ,  . 

Grounds  and  Graining  Colors.  Oak  Graining  in  Oil.  Oak  Graining  in  Spirit 
and  Water  Colours.  Pollard  Oak  and  Knotted  Oak  Graining.  Maple  Graining. 
Mahogany  and  Pitch-pine  Graining.  Walnut  Graining.  Fancy  Wood  Grain- 
ing. Furniture  Graining  Imitating  Woods  by  Staining.  Imitating  Inlaid 
Woods.  Marbling  :  Introduction,  Tools,  and  Materials.  Imitating  Varieties 
of  Marble.  Index. 

Painters'    Oils     Colors  and   Varnishes.     With    Numerous 

Illustrations. 

Contents.  —Painters'  Oils.  Color  and  Pigments.  White  Pigments.  Blue 
Pigments.  Chrome  Pigments.  Lake  Pigments.  Green  Pigments.  Red  Pig- 
ments. Brown  and  Black  Pigments.  Yellow  and  Orange  Pigments  Bronze 
Colors.  Driers.  Paint  Grinding  and  Mixing.  Gums,  Oils,  and  Solvents  for 
Varnishes  Varnish  Manufacture.  Index. 

Practical  Plumbers'  Work.    With  298  Illustrations. 

Contents.—  Materials  and  Tools  Used.  Solder  and  How  to  Make  It.  Sheet 
Lead  Working.  Pipe  Bending.  Pipe  Jointing.  Lead  Burning.  Lead-  Work 
on  Roofs.  Index. 

Practical  Pattern  Making.    With  295  Illustrations 

Contents.  —  Foundry  Patterns  and  Foundry  Practice.  Jointing-uo  Patterns. 
Finishing  Patterns.  Circular  Patterns.  Making  Core  Boxes.  Boring  Holes 
in  Castings.  Patterns  and  Moulds  for  Iron  Columns.  Steam  Engine  Cylinder 
Patterns  and  Core  Boxes.  Worm  Wheel  Pattern.  Lathe  Bed  Patterns. 
Head  Stock  and  Poppet  Patterns.  Slide-rest  Patterns.  Valve  Patterns  and 
Core  Boxes.  Index. 

DAVID   McKAY,  Publisher,  610    South  Washington   Square,   Philadelphia. 


TEC. 

Practical  Handrailing.    With  i44  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Principles  of  Handrailing.  Definition  of  Terms.  Geometrical 
Drawing,  Simple  Handrails.  Wreathed  Handrails  on  the  Cylindrical  System. 
The  Uses  of  Models.  Obtaining  Tangents  and  Bevels.  Face  Moulds  :  their 
Construction  and  Use.  Twisting  the  Wreath.  Completing  the  Handrail. 
Orthogonal  or  Right-angle  System  of  Setting  Wreathed  Handrails.  Handrails 
lor  Stone  Stairs.  Setting  out  Scrolls  lor  Handrails.  Setting  out  Moulded 
Caps.  Intersecting  Handrails  without  Basements.  Index. 

Practical  Brickwork.    With  368  Illustrations. 

Contents.—  Knglish  and  blemish  Bonds.  Garden  and  Boundary  Walls. 
Bonds  for  Square  Angles.  Excavations,  Foundations,  and  Footings.  Junctions 
of  Cross  Walls.  Reveals,  Piers.  Angles  and  other  Bonds.  Jointing  and 
Pointing.  Damp-proof  Courses  and  Construction.  Hollow  or  Cavity  Walls. 
Chimneys  and  Fireplaces.  Gauged  Work  and  Arches.  Niches  and  Domes. 
Oriel  Windows. 
Practical  Painters'  Work.  With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Objects,  Principles  and  Processes  of  Painting.  Painters'  Tools 
and  Appliances.  Materials  used  by  Painters.  Preparing  Surfaces  for  Paint- 
ing, Painting  Woodwork,  Painting  Ironwork,  Painting  Stucco  or  Plaster ; 
Distempering  and  Whitewashing  Color  Combination.  House  Painting.  Varnish 
and  Varnishing.  Stains  and  Staining.  Estimating  and  Measuring  Painters' 
Work.  Index. 

Other  New  Volumes  in  Preparation. 


DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,   610  South   Washington   Square,    Philadelphia. 


